Contemporary India – II | Chapter 1
Resources and Development
Reprint 2026–27 · NCERT
What is a Resource?
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as a Resource.
The process of transformation of things available in our environment involves an interactive relationship between nature, technology and institutions. Human beings interact with nature through technology and create institutions to accelerate their economic development.
Resources are not free gifts of nature. They are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources — they transform material available in our environment into resources and use them.
Classification of Resources
| Basis | Types |
|---|---|
| Origin | Biotic & Abiotic |
| Exhaustibility | Renewable & Non-Renewable |
| Ownership | Individual, Community, National & International |
| Status of Development | Potential, Developed, Stock & Reserves |
Development of Resources
Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. Indiscriminate use of resources has led to major problems:
- Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
- Accumulation of resources in few hands, dividing society into haves and have-nots.
- Indiscriminate exploitation leading to global warming, ozone depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.
Development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future generations.
More than 100 heads of state met in Brazil for the first International Earth Summit.
Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity.
The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21.
Agenda 21
Signed by world leaders in 1992 at UNCED, Rio de Janeiro. It aims at achieving global sustainable development — combating environmental damage, poverty and disease through global co-operation. A key objective: every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.
Resource Planning
Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. India has enormous diversity in resource availability — some regions are resource-rich yet economically backward, while others have a poor resource base but are economically developed.
Resource Planning in India involves three stages:
- Identification and inventory of resources — surveying, mapping and quantitative/qualitative estimation.
- Evolving a planning structure with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set-up.
- Matching resource development plans with overall national development plans.
Regional Resource Snapshot
| Region / State | Resource Strength | Deficit |
|---|---|---|
| Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, M.P. | Minerals & Coal | — |
| Arunachal Pradesh | Water Resources | Infrastructure |
| Rajasthan | Solar & Wind Energy | Water |
| Ladakh | Cultural Heritage | Water, Infrastructure, Minerals |
Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems. India has land under mountains (30%), plateaus (27%) and plains (43%).
Land Use Categories
Forests
Target: 33% of geographical area (National Forest Policy, 1952).
Land Not Available for Cultivation
Barren/waste land; land under buildings, roads, factories.
Other Uncultivated Land
Permanent pastures, miscellaneous tree crops, culturable waste land.
Fallow Lands
Current fallow (≤1 year) and other fallow (1–5 years).
Net Sown Area (NSA)
Physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested. Over 80% in Punjab & Haryana.
Gross Cropped Area
NSA + area sown more than once in an agricultural year.
Land Degradation & Conservation
95% of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land. Human activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural forces.
Causes by State
| State(s) | Main Cause of Degradation |
|---|---|
| Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, M.P., Odisha | Deforestation due to mining |
| Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P., Maharashtra | Overgrazing |
| Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. | Over-irrigation → water logging → salinity/alkalinity |
| Industrial/suburban areas | Industrial effluents & mineral processing dust |
Conservation Measures
- Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
- Planting shelter belts; stabilisation of sand dunes with thorny bushes.
- Proper management of waste lands and control of mining activities.
- Proper discharge and treatment of industrial effluents and wastes.
Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important natural resource — the medium of plant growth. It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few cm in depth. Factors: relief, parent rock, climate, vegetation, time.
Classification of Soils in India
Most widely spread — covers the entire northern plains. Deposited by the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra river systems. Also found in eastern coastal plains (deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri).
- Bangar (old alluvial) — higher kanker nodules, less fertile.
- Khadar (new alluvial) — finer particles, more fertile.
- Rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Ideal for sugarcane, paddy, wheat.
Also called black cotton soil. Typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region — Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, M.P., Chhattisgarh.
- Extremely fine clayey material; high moisture retention.
- Rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, lime; poor in phosphoric content.
- Develops deep cracks in hot weather — aids aeration.
- Sticky when wet; best tilled immediately after first shower.
Soil Erosion and Conservation
The denudation of soil cover and subsequent washing down is soil erosion. Causes include deforestation, over-grazing, construction, mining, wind, glaciers and defective farming.
Gully Erosion
Running water cuts through clayey soils making deep channels. Leads to bad land / ravines (e.g., Chambal basin).
Sheet Erosion
Water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope, washing away top soil.
Wind Erosion
Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land.
Conservation Techniques
- Contour ploughing — ploughing along contour lines decelerates water flow.
- Terrace cultivation — steps cut on slopes restrict erosion (common in western & central Himalayas).
- Strip cropping — grass strips between crops break the force of wind.
- Shelter belts — rows of trees stabilise sand dunes and help check desert spread in western India.
Exercises
1. Multiple Choice Questions
- Which is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
- a Intensive cultivation
- c ✓ Over irrigation
- b Deforestation
- d Overgrazing
- In which state is terrace cultivation practised?
- a Punjab
- c Haryana
- b Plains of Uttar Pradesh
- d ✓ Uttarakhand
- In which state is black soil predominantly found?
- a Uttar Pradesh
- c Rajasthan
- b ✓ Maharashtra
- d Jharkhand
2. Short Answer Questions (~30 words)
(i) Three states with black soil and the crop mainly grown there?
Answer: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Black soil is ideal for growing cotton (also called black cotton soil).
(ii) Type of soil in eastern coastal river deltas? Three features?
Answer: Alluvial soil. Features: (1) Very fertile; (2) Rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime; (3) Supports intensive cultivation of paddy, wheat and sugarcane.
(iii) Steps to control soil erosion in hilly areas?
Answer: Contour ploughing, terrace cultivation and planting shelter belts of trees to break wind force and stabilise slopes.
3. Long Answer Questions (~120 words)
(i) Land use pattern in India and why forest cover hasn't increased much since 1960–61?
Answer: India's land is used for forests, net sown area, fallow lands, permanent pastures, non-agricultural uses and waste land. Forest cover remains far below the desired 33% because of growing demands for agricultural land, urbanisation, infrastructure development and mining activities. Population pressure has led to encroachment on forest land. Despite policy targets, economic needs and inadequate enforcement have prevented significant growth in forest cover since 1960–61.
(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources?
Answer: Technological advancement has enabled extraction of resources previously inaccessible — deep mining, offshore drilling, large-scale irrigation. Economic development raises living standards and purchasing power, increasing demand for energy, minerals and manufactured goods. Industrialisation requires vast raw materials and fuels. Mass production, transport networks and global trade amplify resource consumption manifold. This has led to over-exploitation, environmental degradation and widening inequalities in resource access.
4. Word Search Puzzle
Find the answers horizontally or vertically.
| S | F | G | S | F | O | B | R | O | M | S | U | A | P | J |
| Q | G | A | F | F | O | R | E | S | T | A | T | I | O | N |
| P | N | R | E | C | P | R | S | L | D | M | I | L | N | F |
| S | N | A | T | Q | X | U | O | V | A | I | O | L | A | L |
| O | D | E | I | D | R | J | U | J | L | D | B | N | B | D |
| T | G | H | M | I | N | E | R | A | L | S | A | X | M | W |
| B | V | J | K | M | E | D | C | R | U | P | F | M | H | R |
| L | A | T | E | R | I | T | E | M | V | A | Z | T | V | L |
| A | B | Z | O | E | N | M | F | T | I | S | D | L | R | C |
| C | G | N | N | S | Z | I | O | P | A | X | T | Y | J | H |
| K | J | G | K | D | T | D | C | S | L | S | E | G | E | W |
- (i) Natural endowments — MINERALS
- (ii) Non-renewable resource — (look vertically)
- (iii) Soil with high water retention — BLACK (vertical, col 1, rows 9–11)
- (iv) Intensively leached monsoon soils — LATERITE
- (v) Plantation to check soil erosion — AFFORESTATION
- (vi) Great Plains soils — ALLUVIAL
