SEBA Class X Solanaceous Crop Cultivator Textbook
CONTENTS
Foreword
About the Textbook
Unit 1: Irrigation Management in Vegetable Crops
Session 1: Irrigation and Water Quality
Session 2: Water Requirement and Irrigation Methods
Unit 2: Weed Management in Vegetable Crops
Session 1: Weeds in Vegetable Crops
Session 2: Weed Management
Unit 3: Integrated Pest and Disease Management in
Vegetable Crops
Session 1: Major Insect-pests of Solanaceous Crops
Session 2: Major Diseases of Solanaceous Crops
Session 3: Integrated Pest and Disease Management
of Solanaceous Crops
Unit 4: Harvest and Post-harvest Management in
Solanaceous Crops
Session 1: Maturity Standards and Harvest of
Solanaceous Crops
Session 2: Post-harvest Handling of
Solanaceous Crops
Unit 5: Basic Farm Management
Session 1: Farm Management and Selection
Criteria of Vegetable Crops
Session 2: Basic Market Information
Answer Key
Glossary
List of Credits
Further Reading
ut
Ke)
23
23
34
43
51
57
67
79
90
91
105
115
119
122
125
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Prelims.indd 10
Do You Knouo
According to the 86" Constitutional
Amendment Act, 2002, free and
compulsory education for all
children in 6-14 year age group is Oi
now a Fundamental Right under
Article 21-A of the Constitution.
EDUCATION IS NEITHERA
PRIVILEGE NOR FAVOUR BUT A
BASIC HUMAN RIGHT TO
WHICH ALL GIRLS AND WOMEN
ARE ENTITLED
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INTRODUCTION
Vegetable crops require frequent irrigation for better
growth and development. Irrigation requirement may
vary from crop to crop. If water is the limiting factor, then
proper management and conservation practices can be
fruitful to grow vegetables round the year. Conservation,
management and use of irrigation water are critical to
successful vegetable production, especially when the
fields are under drought condition. A well-organised
water management plan and irrigation scheduling
is the key to water management in vegetables crop
production. Leafy vegetables require frequent irrigation.
Fruiting vegetables and root and tuber vegetables have
different critical stages of water requirement. This unit
will help you understand about the water sensitive or
critical stage of vegetable crops.
Role of Water in Plants
¢ Water is an essential element for plants.
¢ It helps in the growth and development of plants.
It helps plants to absorb and transport minerals
from soil.
It is essential for the conduct of biochemical reactions.
It is integral for making food through photosynthesis.
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NoTES ¢ It helps plants to manage heat or frost stresses.
e It is necessary for seed germination and seedling
establishment.
Sources of Water for Plants
Rainfall and irrigation are the two main sources of water
for plants.
Rainfall is a natural source of water and the quality of
water is also good. But, it is a limited and unpredictable
natural source. Whereas, the artificial application
of water to the soil in order to maintain a proper soil
moisture regime for plant growth is called irrigation.
Irrigation is the practice of planning and applying water
artificially to maintain soil moisture. It can be made an
assured source.
The irrigation requirement of crop plants depends on
¢ the type of vegetable crop. Shallow-rooted crops
need light but frequent irrigation as compared to
deep-rooted vegetable crops.
e the growing season. Summer vegetable crops
need more frequent irrigation than the winter
crops. Occasionally the rainy season crops also
need irrigation.
¢ the climate. Crops should be irrigated less frequently
during the cool climate and more frequently in
tropical or hot climate.
¢ the soil type. Frequent but light irrigation should
be done in sandy soil and deep but less frequent
irrigation is required in clayey soil.
e the type of irrigation system. Regular irrigation is
needed in the drip system and less frequently in the
surface, sub-surface and sprinklerirrigation system.
Session 1: IRRIGATION AND WATER QUALITY
Importance of Irrigation
e Since vegetable crops contain 80-90% water they
require a large amount of water and frequent
irrigation for proper growth and development.
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Chapter -l.indd 3
In water shortage conditions the yield and quality of
vegetable crops suffer. Hence, irrigation is essential
for higher yield and good quality vegetables.
Vegetable crops grow fast, hence, they require
frequent and more water.
A sufficient amount of water in the roots is a pre-
requisite for better yield and quality produce.
Irrigation reduces dependence on rainfall because it
can be done as and when required.
If irrigation is scheduled properly, it can save water
and minimise weed problems.
Irrigation helps in growing more crops in a year in
the same field.
Sources of Irrigation Water
1. Surface water sources are found on the surface of
the land. These sources are rivers, canals, ponds,
lakes, dams, etc. Generally the quality of water from
these sources is quite good and fit for irrigation.
2. Groundwater is underground water lifted through
dug wells, tube wells and bore wells. This water
quality varies from poor to good.
Surface Water Sources Groundwater Sources
Rivers Dug wells
Tubewells /Borewell
Dams |
Fig. 1.1: Sources of irrigation water
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Notes Do you know?
e India has very few water resources and the groundwater
level is also depleting at an alarming rate. Therefore, it is
essential to conserve rainwater. Also, mulching in crops
can save water and increase irrigation interval.
In some areas, poor quality water full of toxins, heavy metals
and microbes is used in the cultivation of vegetables. It can
be used but only after proper treatment.
The quality of water is as important as the quantity
for successful vegetable cultivation. In India, water
quality concerns have often been neglected because
of the availability of good quality water but nowadays
this situation is changing in many areas. Poor quality
water from urban-industrial areas and the salinity of
groundwater need to be properly treated before using
for irrigation.
Good quality water is a crucial factor for soil to
remain productive for long. It allows growing of any kind
of vegetable crop and also gives a high yield and better
quality of vegetable crops.
Various regions in the country use poor quality
water to irrigate the crops. Untreated water from urban-
industrial areas is of poor quality. In some areas,
groundwater is very deep and poor in quality.
Using poor quality water for irrigation may
¢ deteriorate the soil health.
¢ deposit excess salt in the root zone.
e reduce uptake of minerals and affect crop yield.
¢ reduce soil permeability and increase water runoff.
¢ show toxicity of metals in some plants.
Criteria of Suitable Water for Irrigation
1. pH of water being used for irrigation should range
between 6.5 to 8.5.
2. Water salinity is an indicator of total dissolved salts
present in the water. It is of prime concern for both
the soil structure and crop yield. Salt concentration
is measured by electrical conductivity (EC) in mili
Siemens per meter (mSm") or micromhos per cm.
Water having EC below 1500 micromhos/cm is good
for irrigation.
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Chapter -l.indd 5
3. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is a measure of the
relative proportion of sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca‘*?)
and magnesium (Mg*’) in water. High sodium causes
breaking of soil aggregates and sealing of the soil
pores. Sodium weakens the binding capacity of soil.
A small SAR value indicates low sodium content in
water. It should be below 10 in irrigation water.
4. Residual sodium carbonate and _ bicarbonate
concentration content in water increases the pH.
This can have an alkalising effect and raise the SAR
index. Residual sodium carbonate below 1.5 mg/litre
in irrigation water is safe. The following measures can
be adopted for the management of this water quality.
(i) Addition of gypsum in low calcium soil + leaching
(ii) Addition of sulphur + lime + leaching
(iii) More frequent irrigation
(iv) Avoid the sprinkler method of irrigation
(v) Avoid using fertilisers containing chloride
and boron
(vi) Select tolerant crops
5. Boron is the most common element found in toxic
concentrations in water. It cannot be easily removed
from water. The only remedy is to dilute high boron
water. Below 1.0 ppm boron content is acceptable
level in irrigation water.
Quality Testing Instruments
It is important to test the suitability of water quality
for its intended purpose. Water testing will help to
know whether the quality of water is fit for irrigation
or not. If it is not, then one needs to find out what is
the specific reason for the poor quality of
water. Generally, the pH and electrical
conductivity (EC) are the two most
important parameters for water quality
analysis. When a pH colour strip is dipped
into alkaline or acidic water the colour
changes as shown in Fig. 1.2.
1. pH meter is an equipment by which
we can measure the pH level of any
solution. It consists of a display unit
and electrode. When the electrode is Wig-.2- pH colour strip sale
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inserted into the solution the display unit
shows the pH value. Ideally, the pH of the
soil and water has to be 6-6.5 and that of
the nutrient solution should be 5.6-6.5. For
accurate data collection, the pH meter, like
all other equipment, should be calibrated
beforehand. It is more accurate than the pH
== colour strip. (Fig. 1.3)
iy 2. Electrical conductivity (EC) meter is
— used to measure the total dissolved salts
Sig tot Eagitial ph Wietee in irrigation water. It is reported in terms
of millimhos per centimetre (mmhos/cm),
deci Siemens per metre (dS/m), micro
Siemens per centimetre (uS/cm) or milli
Siemens per centimetre (mS/cm), which
gives information on the degree of salinity
in water. Micro Siemens per centimetre is
| the standard unit to represent EC value
Fig. 1.4; Digital Electrical Conductivity of freshwater measurements. They are all
(EC) meter similar on numerical count. The numerical
value remains the same per unit area, only the
reference varies. Electrical conductivity of irrigation
water is more when it contains more soluble salts
and vice versa. The temperature of water affects
conductivity and it is usually reported at 25°C.
The EC measurement is the easiest and a rapid
method to analyse the salinity level of water, but it is
non-specific. It measures only the combined effect of
all ions present and cannot distinguish between the
different types of ions (Fig. 1.4).
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
Collection of water samples for quality testing
Material required
Plastic sample bottle (500 ml)
Procedure
a. Tubewell or handpump
¢ Start the tubewell or handpump and let it run for about
15-20 minutes. It is necessary to drain out all the water
retained in the pipe of the well or pump to avoid ‘pipe
effect’ (metals, salts deposited in the pipe).
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Chapter -l.indd 7
¢ Take a water sample in sample bottles (500 ml-1 litre)
just before the water falls into the channel.
¢ To analyse the quality of water from a tubewell or
handpump, never collect the water sample once it falls
into the channels because it affects the water quality.
b. Ponds or tanks
e Sample water from a pond or tank should be taken at
least 5-10 metres inside the boundary area to avoid
boundary effect.
e Take a properly washed plastic container for sampling.
e Displace the surface water of the pond or tank gently and
take the sample from the intermediate depth.
c. Collect the water in a sample bottle immediately and close
the bottle cap tightly.
d. Label the sample by writing name, address, source, place
and date of sampling.
e. Submit the collected samples to the water quality testing
laboratory within 2-3 days.
Precautions
e Avoid possibility of any external contamination.
¢ Don’t wash the bottle with detergents or soap.
¢ Don’t take water from the pond surface because it
may contain organic material and affect the correct
representation of water quality.
¢ Gently shake the pond surface to collect the water sample
more accurately.
Activity 2
Measure pH by using litmus paper or pH meter
With litmus paper or pH paper
Material required
Litmus or pH paper strip, water from different sources, writing
material, practical file, etc.
Procedure
1. Collect the water from different sources and places.
2. To observe the pH of the water sample, take the sample in
a beaker (100 ml).
3. Dip the litmus paper in the sample and observe the colour
change.
4. The litmus or pH paper changes colour based on the pH of
the water sample.
5. Match the colour change with the help of a colour strip.
6. Note down the pH of water.
With a pH meter
Procedure
1. Collect the water sample.
2. Take 40 ml (5 ml more or less) of the water sample in
a beaker.
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Notes 3. Stabilise the temperature of the water sample.
4. Insert the pH meter electrode in the water beaker and turn
the beaker to adjust for good contact between the pH meter
electrode and water.
5. Before taking a recording, stabilise the pH reading of the
sample for 20-30 seconds (automatic pH meter provides
signals).
6. After reading, wash the electrode with distilled water to
remove any film on it.
Precautions
e Calibrate the pH meter by using a pH 7 buffer solution
before noting the observations.
e Insert the electrode into water. It should not touch the
bottom of the beaker.
e During the electrode storage, keep it in pH 7 buffer.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Water is an essential for plant life.
2. Vegetable crops grow fast, hence they require
and ;
3. The untreated water from urban-industrial areas is
in quality.
4. pH range of water is considered safe
for irrigation.
B. Multiple choice questions
1. Irrigation is a practice of
(a) only artificial application of water
(b) watering through rainfall
(c) recharging groundwater
(d) storing rainwater
2. Irrigation water suitable for most of the crops contains
boron.
(a) below 1.0 ppm
(b) 1.0 ppm - 1.5 ppm
(c) 1.0 ppm - 2.0 ppm
(d) above 2.0 ppm
3. The most common surface water source is a
(a) tube well
(b) dug well
(c) river
(d) bore well
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Chapter -l.indd 9
4.
Total dissolved salt in water is measured with a NoTEs
(a) Hygrometer
(b) Lux meter
(c) pH meter
(d) EC meter
Electrical conductivity in irrigation water should
be
(a) below 1500 micromhos/cm
(b) 2000-3000 micromhos/cm
(c) 2500-3500 micromhos/cm
(d) above 3000 micromhos/cm
C. Short answer questions
ike
See ee
SB)
Define irrigation and enlist the role of irrigation water.
Point out the criteria for suitability of irrigation water.
When is water suitable for irrigation?
Classify irrigation sources with proper examples.
How is water testing helpful for a farmer?
D. Match the columns
oR WN
A B
. Quality test (a) Mulching
. Poor quality water (b) Frequent watering
. Increase water pH (c) Deposit salts in root zone
)
. Increase irrigation interval (d) Suitability of water
)
. Shallow rooted crops (e) Carbonate and
bicarbonate
SEssION 2: WATER REQUIREMENT AND
IRRIGATION METHODS
Water Requirement
Water requirement (Wk) of a crop is the total quantity
of water needed for crop growth and yield that may
be supplied by rainfall or irrigation or both. Water
requirement varies from crop to crop and soil profile.
It is different from irrigation requirement (IR), which is
the total quantity of water applied to a cropped field to
supplement rainfall and soil profile contribution.
When the entire water requirement is supplied by
irrigation, then both WR and IR are the same. It is
expressed as the unit of absorbed water required for
the production of one unit of dry matter.
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NoTEs Water requirement (mm) =Evapo-transpiration +
Application losses + Special needs
Where,
Evapo-transpiration (ET) = Total loss of water by
transpiration from crop and evaporation from soil
Application losses = Water loss during the application
of irrigation water
Special needs = Water required for land preparation,
transplanting, leaching,etc.
How much to irrigate
If the water requirement of a particular crop is 6 mm
per day, it means every day we need to give 6 mm of
water to the crop. In field condition practically, it is not
possible so it can be given as 30 mm for every 5 days
or 60 mm for every 10 days. The frequency of irrigation
varies with the growing season, types of crop and types
of soil and its condition.
Water requirement of vegetable crops
Tomato: 600-800 mm
Chili: 450-500 mm
Brinjal: 1000 mm
Potato: 500-700 mm
Onion: 640-700 mm
Watermelon:500 mm
Pea: 350-500 mm
Cauliflower: 350 mm
Bean: 300-500 mm
Cabbage: 380-500 mm
Source: Reddy, 1999
Points to understand
e The water requirement of a crop is expressed in
mm/season.
e The crops require more water in summer than
in winter.
¢ Long duration crops have more water requirement.
¢ Shallow rooted vegetable crops need light but
frequent irrigation.
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Chapter -l.indd 11
¢ Timely irrigation means higher yield and better
quality of produce.
¢ Only a few vegetables, such as brinjal, chili,
watermelon, amaranthus, can tolerate partial
drought.
e Unlike clayey soil, sandy soil requires low but more
frequent depth of water.
e Avoid over flooding otherwise it will cause poor
aeration and poor germination.
e With regular irrigation, keep the ridges and fields
moist but not wet, for better crop growth and
development.
Vegetable crops are divided into three major
categories depending upon the rooting depth.
Table 1.1: Rooting depth of various vegetable crops
Onion, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, potato,
ip, cucumber, brinjal,
elngllosy oo fi SEA i radish, cowpea, lettuce, broccoli
AUSSI EEN) 90-20 cm aS eetroot, tut a .
deep-rooted al , sweet pepper, muskmelon, tomato
Deep-rooted 120 cm) potato, watermelon
When to irrigate?
While growing vegetable crops, some stages of the plants
are very sensitive to water stress. If it is not irrigated
at this stage, the growth and yield of the crop can be
adversely affected. This is known as the critical stage.
Water shortage in early crop stages delay crop
maturity and reduce the yield, while moisture stress in
the later stages of the crop reduce the quality of the
produce. Hence, adequate moisture is essential for a
high yield and good quality produce.
The frequency of irrigation and the amount of
water to be given depend on a number of factors, such
as the depth of the root system, water use efficiency,
growth stage, soil type, prevailing weather conditions
and the actual consumptive use of the vegetable crops.
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
(More than Asparagus, pumpkin, winter squash, sweet
(Source: Swarup, 2014)
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Vegetables need frequent and timely irrigation for higher
yield and good quality produce.
The decision on ‘when to irrigate’ can be taken on
the basis of visual plant indices, soil appearance and
climatic parameters. Visual symptoms, such as dropping
and rolling of plants in mid-day are used to determine
the time of irrigation. When soil samples from the root
zone do not form a ‘soil ball’ properly, irrigation can
be planned. Critical periods of water needs have been
identified in most crops, the stage when they must be
irrigated to maintain adequate moisture in the root zone
(Table 1.2).
Table.1.2: Critical stages of vegetable crops
Tomato, chili, brinjal Flowering, fruit set and fruit development
DA
Flowering and pod devel
(Source: Swarup, 2014)
Methods of Irrigation
The system of irrigation water application into a crop
field is called method of irrigation. The selection of
suitable irrigation method mainly depends on the soil
characteristics, cropping system, land topography,
quantity and quality of irrigation water and the nature
and availability of inputs like labour and energy.
There are four principal systems of irrigation: surface,
sub-surface, aerial or overhead or sprinkler irrigation
and drip irrigation.
An efficient method aims at the proper use of
irrigation water in conjunction with other inputs to
enhance yield. Land topography, soil and crop types,
water quality and quantity, availability of labour and
energy are factors for deciding the irrigation method.
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Chapter -l.indd 13
The system of irrigation and common methods are
given in Fig. 1.5.
ds of Irrigation
Fig. 1.5: Irrigation systems and methods
Surface irrigation system
It is the most common and cheapest method of irrigation
and is also known as gravity irrigation method. In this
method the field is usually watered by introducing a
stream of water through channels, pipes or ditches at
the head of the field and allowing gravity and hydrostatic
pressure to spread the flow over the surface of the
entire field. Land leveling and smoothing are essential
operations. The important surface irrigation methods
are: (i) flooding; (ii) bed or border method; (iii) basin (ring
and basin) method; and (iv) furrow (ridge and furrow,
broad ridge or raised bed) method.
Flood
It is an ancient irrigation practice, where a
water channel is opened into a field and water
is allowed to flow freely in all directions to
cover the land surface like a sheet. This is
practiced in an area where water is abundant
and the topography is leveled. The flooding
method is still practiced in vegetable crops,
such as onion, garlic, pea, spinach, coriander,
fenugreek and amaranthus, grown by the
broadcasting method on a well-levelled field.
(Fig. 1.6)
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NoTES Advantages
1. It is applicable to properly leveled soils.
2. Low cost of operation due to use of gravity and
hydrostatic pressure.
3. Skilled human resource is not required.
4. No specialised equipment is required.
Disadvantages
1. It is an unscientific and inefficient method
of irrigation.
2. Maximum loss of irrigation water occurs in
this method.
3. It requires more water per unit area than all other
methods of irrigation.
4. Unsuitable for spacious crops and crops sensitive to
waterlogging. It spreads soil borne diseases.
5. It results in wetting of the entire field surface. Hence,
it increases weed population in the field.
6. Variability in infiltration rate of soil in the field
causes non-uniformity of water distribution in the
root zone.
7. There is more loss of nutrients.
Border irrigation method
In this method, the land is leveled and divided into
different strips of appropriate size by making the borders
30 cm high between each strip. Strips of 3-10 m width
and 30-90 m length with up to 0.5% slope are formed.
This is suitable for growing vegetable crops (Fig. 1.7).
Water supply
channel . Ridge or
Strip border
View of border irrigation method
Fig. 1.7: Border irrigation method
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Chapter -l.indd 15
Advantages
1. It is easy to prepare, operate and maintain borders
and strips.
2. It is suitable to irrigate crops on steep slopes by
making small strips.
Disadvantages
1. It requires a flat and smooth topography.
. More water flow is required to irrigate border strips.
2
3. Not suitable for sandy soil.
4
. To avoid waterlogging a proper drainage system
is required.
Check basin irrigation method
In this method, the field is
divided into square or rectangular
checks or plots surrounded by
ridges for irrigation (Fig. 1.8).
The plots are generally leveled or
have a mild slope. It is used
successfully for both field and
row crops. A modification in the
basin method is the ring and
basin method in which a circular
basin of about 45-60 cm width is
made around the plant for
irrigation of the crop. In this
method, water is impounded to
irrigate a single tree or vine
vegetables (Fig. 1.9). In vegetable
crops, this method is practised
for bitter gourd, bottle gourd,
ridge gourd, melons, etc. This
method is not used for
solanaceous vegetable crops.
Advantages
1. It can be used to irrigate
irregular shaped fields.
2. Water application and
distribution efficiencies are
generally high.
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
ee
ee bees
me eee we ae ae ae CO
eS el
Sd
es ee
Fig. 1.8: Line diagram of check basin irrigation method
Fig. 1.9: Line diagram of ring and
basin irrigation methods
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Disadvantages
1. It requires proper land leveling.
2. It is comparatively more labour intensive.
3. The borders interfere with the use of farm machines.
4. It is not suitable for crops sensitive to water logging.
Furrow irrigation method
In this method, water is moved to the
field in furrows between two ridges. These
furrows are lined among rows of the
crop according to the slope of the land
(Fig. 1.10). Furrows are channels with
continuous and nearly uniform slope in
the direction of irrigation. Furrows, 3-6 m
in length are spread in such a way that
water reaches every nook and corner of
the field. Planting is done on the side of
the ridges or raised beds (about 15-22 cm
high) and water is given in 15-20 cm deep furrows of
30-50 cm width. This method is commonly adopted
in vegetable crops like tomato, brinjal, potato, chili,
radish, carrot, cauliflower, etc.
Fig. 1.10: Furrow irrigation method
Advantages
1. Water efficiency is high due to less wastage because
irrigation is done in furrows only.
2. The entire land surface is not covered with water
therefore the problem of weeds is minimised.
3. It is more suitable for vegetables grown on rows
or beds.
4. Relatively easy to operate and requires less labour,
hence it is not expensive.
5. Evaporation losses are less because it exposes a
smaller area of open water.
6. It is adapted to most soils.
Disadvantages
1. Labour requirement is more for making ridges and
furrows and streaming irrigation water.
2. Furrows interfere with farm machinery during
weeding, spraying and crop harvesting.
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Chapter -l.indd 17
3. Not suitable for sandy soils because of poor
stability of furrows, land leveling problem and high
infiltration rate.
4. Not applicable on uneven lands because a leveled
field is required for proper flow of water.
Sub-surface irrigation
It is the application of water below the ground surface
and using capillaries for the movement of water. When
an impervious layer exists naturally below the root
zone, it allows water to enter a series of ditches dug up
to the impervious layer, which then moves laterally to
wet the root zone. In artificial sub-surface irrigation,
perforated or porous pipes are laid out underground
below the root zone and water is led into the pipes by
suitable means.
Advantages
1. Reduces water loss due to less evaporation.
2. Do not create any interference with the
farm operations.
3. Easy to maintain water level at optimum depths as
per crop requirements.
Disadvantages
1. It requires high cost for installation.
2. Difficult to locate leaks in the system.
3. Repairing is expensive.
4. This method is not suitable, where irrigation is often
needed to germinate crops.
Sprinkler or overhead irrigation
In the sprinkler system, water is sprinkled over the crop
and the soil in a circular manner similar to rain. With
the help of revolving sprinkler nozzles, water is forced
out with pressure through pipes fitted with a stand. The
nozzles rotate due to the water pressure and spread
water in the form of a thin spray. Water can be applied in
a controlled way and distributed uniformly. Compared
to the other method, this is a much more efficient
system. It is ideal for hilly and undulating regions where
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Notes other systems cannot be used Fig. 1.11(a-d). The major
components of the sprinkler system are the pump, main
line, lateral pipe and sprinkler.
Advantages
1. It can be used to irrigate undulating land.
2. There are no obstacles when farm implements are
being used.
3. Water saving is around 30-35%.
4. Fertilisers and pesticides can also be applied by
this method.
5. The amount of water can be controlled as per the
crop requirement.
6. More land area can be covered for irrigation.
7. This system is useful to control frost during
freezing temperature.
Disadvantages
1. The installation and maintenance cost is high.
2. High wind velocity influences the distribution pattern
of water.
3. It is not suitable if the water contains appreciable
amount of dissolved salts.
4. Skilled labour is required for the operation and
maintenance of this system.
5. Itis not useful in case of tall crops with more spacing.
c d
Fig. 1.11(a-d): View of the sprinkler or the overhead irrigation system
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Chapter -l.indd 19
Lateral !
Flush Valk
Drip irrigation system
This is also known as _ trickle
irrigation or micro irrigation, which
supplies water in the form of
discrete, continuous drops at a
slow rate through emitters, either
onto the soil surface or directly to
the root zone. There is direct and
continuous wetting of the root
region. Fertilisers and chemical
amendments can also be applied
using this method. It is a highly
water use efficient system with
little irrigation water requirement.
Thus, it is suitable for water scarce
areas. Itsaves 40-60 % of water over
the other conventional methods
(Figs 1.12 and 1.13).
Head
Control Unit
Pump
-Fertliliser
Tank
Main Line
and Sub Line
Fig.1.12:Components of a drip irrigation system
Pp
— Well/ Water
— source
ripper /Emitter
Fig. 1.13: Component and layout of a drip irrigation system
Components of a drip irrigation system
Based on the system’s requirements, the head control
unit consists of the following equipment.
¢ Pump provides pressure to lift water from the source
and distribute through the nozzles.
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| Chapter -l.indd 20
Notes
¢ Fertiliser tank is used when fertilisers are applied
along with irrigation.
¢ Filter is used to clean the suspended impurities
in water.
¢ Main line and sub line are flexible black poly vinyl
chloride (PVC) pipes used for distribution of water to
laterals from the water source.
e Lateral lines are 1 to 1.25 cm diameter black flexible
PVC tubes that take of from the mains or sub mains.
Laterals are normally laid parallel to each other.
e Emitters or drippers are fixed at regular intervals
in the laterals. It is the most important component
in the drip system and regulates the discharge rate
of water.
Advantages
1. It is a highly efficient system with 80 to 90% water
use efficiency.
2. It saves up to 40 to 60% water.
3. This system also facilitates the supply of liquid
fertilisers directly to the root zone.
4. Increases plant yield up to 10 to 25%.
Problem of weeds and cost of labour is minimised.
6. Ideal for slopes or undulating land, especially in
the hills.
a
Disadvantages
1. The installation cost is very high.
2. It needs regular care and maintenance
3. Technical skill is essential to maintain and operate it.
4. It is not suitable for areas where water or subsoil
contains appreciable amount of salt.
Activity 1
Identification of different components of drip irrigation system
and their function
Material required
Sketching and writing material and different components of a
drip system
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Procedure
1.
Sr
Visit a nearby farm where a drip system has been installed.
2. Observe the types of drip system.
Si,
4. Identify different components, such as drippers, laterals,
Note down the different components of a drip unit.
valves,etc.
Draw a figure of the drip system and write the functions of
its different components.
Activity 2
Demonstrate the border irrigation method
Material required
Sketching and writing material.
Procedure
ip
Visit a nearby farm where border irrigation method is being
followed.
2. Select a piece of land and prepare a layout.
3.
4. Irrigate and observe the performance of the crop.
Transplant the seedling of the given crop.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
ile
Applying irrigation water in the crop at definite frequency
is known as
A particular stage of the plants that is sensitive to water
stress is known as
Land, levelled and divided into different strips of
appropriate size by making borders, is called the
method.
Sprinkler irrigation is also known as
The critical stage of irrigation in onion and garlic crops is
In drip irrigation system, water is let out through devices
called
A highly efficient irrigation system with 80-90% water
use efficiency is .
B. Multiple choice questions
1.
The critical stage of irrigation in cabbage is
(a) head formation
(b) flowering stage
(c) seed germination
(d) harvesting stage
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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| Chapter -l.indd 22
NorTes
2. Irrigation water spread over the crop as well as on the
soil in a circular manner is called
(a) flood
(b) border
(c) overhead irrigation
(d) check
3. The process of applying liquid fertilisers through an
irrigation system is known as .
(a) fertigation
(b) drip irrigation
(c) sprinkler irrigation
(d) furrow irrigation
4. The irrigation method, which is suitable in undulating
lands is
(a) flood irrigation
(b) furrow irrigation
(c) sprinkler irrigation
(d) basin irrigation
5. Drip irrigation helps in
(a) saving water
(b) increasing yield
(c) increasing quality
(d) All of the above
. Short answer questions
1. Define irrigation and its methods.
2. How is a drip irrigation system useful?
3. Write the advantages and disadvantages of the furrow
method of irrigation.
4. Ifyou are a farmer with undulating land but good quality
water, which method of irrigation will you prescribe?
Justify.
5. Among the surface irrigation methods,which method is
good? Explain.
. Match the columns
A B
1. Sprinkler system (a) Cucurbitaceous crops
2. Furrow irrigation (b) Drip system
3. Check basin irrigation (c) Nozzles
4. Bulbous crop (d) Vegetable crop
5. Highest water use (e) Onion
efficiency
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INTRODUCTION
Weeds are wild plants growing where they are not
wanted, especially among crops or garden plants. Weed
propagules remain viable for a long time and survive in
the field even under odd conditions. Based on their life
cycle, weeds can be classified as annuals, biennials or
perennials. They can be reproduced by seeds or through
cuttings, bulbs, corms, rhizomes or tubers. Weeds
are harmful as these compete with the main crop for
nutrients, water, light and space and badly affect the
growth and production of the main crop. They also play
an important role as alternative hosts for various stages
of insect-pests and pathogens.
They may also produce certain toxins and chemicals
that are harmful for the crop as well as to humans and
animals in the vicinity. Weeds occupy land, spread fast
and hence, require regular eradication. It requires a lot
of energy and resources to control them.
171002CHO2
SEssION 1: WEEDS IN VEGETABLE CROPS
Weeds may be defined as a plant that grows in another
plant’s space and uses mineral and fertiliser that is
meant for the desired crop. It is an unwanted plant in
the crop field or its surrounding areas.
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Notes Characteristics of weeds
e Weed seeds germinate early, grow fast, and being
hardy compete with the main crop for light, moisture
and nutrients.
e Weeds are unwanted plants that are harmful to
crops, livestock and human beings.
e Weeds can survive under unfavourable conditions.
e They have a very high and prolific capacity
to reproduce.
e Even under a deeper layer of the soil, the weed seed
can remain viable.
¢ Some specific structures like wings, hooks, spines,
sticky hairs, etc., are present in the seeds, which can
help in easy dissemination over longer distance.
Types of weeds
Some of the most common weeds are as given below.
¢ Monocot weeds have a hollow and round stem,
internodes are short and hard, and the leaves are
slender, long and have parallel veins. Most of the
grasses, such as doob grass (Cynodon dactylon),
motha (Cyperus rotundus) and crab grass (Digitaria
sanguinalis) belong to this group.
¢ Dicot weeds have a taproot system with broad
leaves. The veins on its leaves are netted and they
produce flowers, such as bathua (Chenopodium
album), Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.).
e Sedges have hard triangular stems and look like
grass. The leaves extend from each side of the stem
in three directions. Sedges have sharp edges.
Also, weeds can be categorised as follows:
Broadleaf weeds
These weeds have two seed leaves (first leaves or
cotyledons) when they emerge from the soil. The
leaves of this type of weeds are generally wider than
the grassy weeds. The veins on the leaves are netlike
or branched. Stems of this weed are oval, round or
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square and are often branched. They may have showy
flowers (Fig. 2.1).
Grassy weeds
They have only one seed leaf and are also called narrow
leaf weeds. The leaf blades of this type of weeds are
narrow and have parallel veins. The stems are oval or
round. The ends of the stems may develop seed heads
and have unseen flowers (Fig. 2.2)
Fig.2.1: Broadleaf weeds Fig.2.2: Grassy weeds
Camphor grass (Chromolaena odorata) Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)
Difference between broadleaf weeds and narrow leaf weeds
They have two seed leaves (cotyledons). They have only one seed leaf.
i 4 ~> .
The leaves are broad. The leaves are narrowing.
The veins on the leaves are branched or netted. The leaves have parallel veins.
The stems are often | branched. The stems are unbranched.
They have showy flowers. They have inconspicuous flowers.
There are some parasitic weeds, which absorb nutrients
and water through the roots of the crop plants. For
example, broomrape (Orobanche cernua and Orobanche
indica), dodder (Cuscuta) and witchweed (Striga).
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS O
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| Chapter -2.indd 26
Summar
Annual
Xanthium
(Cocklebur)
Convolvulus
(Morning glory)
Amaranthus
(Pigweed)
Chenoppodium
(Lamb’s
quarters)
Digitaria
(Crab grass)
Winter
Classification of weeds
Based on their life cycle weeds can be classified into
three groups: annuals, biennials and _ perennials
(Fig. 2.3).
Classification of Weeds
Biennials
Wild carrot
Perennials
Annual
Bromus
(Cheatgrass)
(Daucus carota)
Bull thistle
(Cirsium)
Simple
Perennials
Buck thorn
(Rhamnus)
Creeping
Perennials
Field
Bindweed
Capsella
(Shepherd’s)
Sonchus
(Sowthistle)
Sinapis
(Convolvulus
arvensis)
Broad
leaf plantain
(Plantago) Bermuda
grass
(Cynodon
dactylon)
Phytolacca
(Pokeweed)
(Wild mustard)
Johnson
grass
(Sorghum
halepense)
Canadian
thistle
(Cirsium
Fig. 2.3: Classification of weeds arvensis)
Annuals
In annuals, a weed grows from a seed and completes
its life cycle within one year. Generally, such weeds are
considered comparatively easy to control. However, due
to their large numbers and large quantity of seeds and
fast growth, these are very constant. They incur higher
cost to control than perennial weeds. Vegetable crops
are largely affected by these weeds. These are further
grouped into:
Summer Annuals
These annual weeds germinate during the spring season
and make most of their growth during the summer.
A summer annual usually flowers, produces seed
and dies. The seeds remain dormant in the soil until
the next spring. The common summer annual weeds
include Xanthium (cocklebur), Convolvulus (morning
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glory), Amaranthus (pigweed), Chenopodium (lamb’s NoTES
quarters) and Digitaria (crab grass). These weeds are
most problematic in summer cropslike tomato, okra,
peppers, cucurbitaceous crops and other spring planted
vegetable crops.
Winter Annuals
They germinate during late summer and winter, usually
flower and produce seeds in the spring or early summer
before dying.
During summer months, the seed remains dormant
in the soil because the high temperature of the soil
restricts their germination.
The winter annual weeds include Bromus
(cheatgrass), Capsella (shepherd’s purse), Sonchus (sow
thistle) and Sinapis (wild mustard). These weeds are
mostly problematic in winter and early spring for grown
crops like carrots, radish, beetroot, onion, garlic, cole,
lettuce, etc.
Biennials
These weed plants complete their life cycle in more than
one year but do not take over two years. The troublesome
weeds that fall in this group are wild carrot and Cirsium
(bull thistle), etc.
Perennials
These weeds take more than two years to complete their
life cycle and may live for many years. They reproduce
by seed and also spread vegetatively. They are further
classified into:
e Simple perennials spread only by seed and not
by vegetative means. However, the cut pieces of
plants may also produce new plants. The roots of
these weeds are fleshy and may grow very large, for
example, Rhamnus (buckthorn), Plantago (broadleaf
plantain) and Phytolacca (pokeweed).
e Creeping perennials multiply through creeping
roots (creeping above the ground stems, stolens,
or creeping below ground stems, rhizomes) and
seeds. The examples are Convolvulus arvensis (field
bindweed), Cynodon dactylon (doob grass), Sorghum
halepense (Johnson grass) and Cirsium arvense
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS O
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I.
Zz
Chulai
Satyanashi
Bathua
Kandat/Lehli
Doob
Motha
Takri Ghas
Badi Dudhi
Hiran Pug
Sabuni
(Digitaria sanguinalis)
| Chapter -2.indd 28
Canadian
(Canadian thistle). Some weeds also propagate by
means of tubers, which are modified rhizomes, such
as Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke) and
Cyprus (nut sedge or nut grass). Once a field is
infested with these weeds, it becomes very difficult
to control them. The weeds associated with different
vegetable crops are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: List of common weeds associated with different vegetable crops
Slender
Amaranthus viridis
amaranth
Mexican prickly ;
Argemone mexicana
poppy
Lamb’s quarter Chenopodium album
thistle Cirsium GPENSE
Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
N a j -C > Or oer
@
Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis
Gard spurge /
,,
As thma sleia E22 orbia hirta
Field bindweed | Convolvulus arvensis
Horse ursity Trianthema
Pussrane portulacastrum
Chili, onion and
garlic
Chili and potato
Tomato, brinjal, chili,
cabbage, cauliflower,
potato and radish
Tomato, potato and
_ chili
Tomato, brinjal,
chili, onion, garlic,
potato and radish
Tomato, cabbage,
cauliflower, onion,
garlic andcarrot
Cabbage and
cauliflower
Chili, potato and
cassava
Radish and sweet
potato
Potato, carrot and
tomato
Figs 2.4-2.13 show weeds associated with major
vegetable crops.
Fig.2.4: Common Crabgrass Fig.2.5: Asthma Plant
(Euphorbia hirta)
Fig. 2.6: Field bindweed or
Hirankhuri (Convolvulus arvensis)
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Fig. 2.7: Amaranth Fig.2.8: Satyanashi or Mexican Fig.2.9: Bathua or Pigweed
(Amaranthus viridus) poppy (Argemone mexicana) (Chenopodium album)
Fig.2.10: Creeping thistle Fig.2.11: Doob grass or Bermuda Fig.2.12: Purple nut sedge or
(Cirsium arvense) (Cynodon dactylon) Motha (Cyperus rotundus)
Losses caused by weeds
In India, weeds cause the highest loss followed
by pathogens, insects, storage pests, rodents and
others. The various losses caused by weeds have been
described below.
Increase in cost of cultivation
Tillage operations are required to remove the weeds :
from vegetable fields, which is about 25-30 per cent Fig.2.13: Bishkhapra
of the total expenditure of crop production. In case of (Boerhavia difusa)
severe infestation of weeds, more labour is required for
manual weeding to remove the weeds. This increases
the cost of cultivation and reduces the net return from
the crop.
Reduction in quality of crop produce
Weed infestation reduces the quality of crop. Especially
leafy vegetables suffer a lot from the infestation of weeds
as the seeds of Euphorbia hirta (leafy vegetables) are
very small, which increases chances of seed mixing.
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS ©O
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High infestation of pests and diseases
Weeds serve as an alternative host for diseases and
pests. When a particular host dies, the pests and
diseases remain and survive on weeds. When the season
becomes favourable again, they start their life cycle and
damage the main crop.
Reduction in crop vigour and health
Weeds compete for space, light, nutrition, moisture,
etc., with the main crop. They deprive the main crop
from essential elements required for growth and
development. Once the main crop growth is affected,
the yield obtained from infested field is very low.
Interference in agricultural operations
Heavy weed infestation in vegetable fields creates
problem in field operations like tillage, earthling up,
bed preparation, preparation of
irrigation channel, etc. All these
factors affect crop performance,
< ultimately reducing the yield.
Reduction in
soil fertility
by harmful
secretion
Reduction in \ Reduction in soil fertility
the quality of | The root exudates of Cyperus
crop produce
rotundus (Motha) reduce _ the
germination of seeds and causes
Losses . ;
Caused by great losses in terms of yield as well
Weeds _/ p as degradation of soil fertility by
harmful secretion.
Critical stages of weed control
diseases
Vegetable crops are sensitive to weed
in | infestation. Therefore, critical stages
and health must be kept in mind for effective
us weed management. Critical stages of
: vegetable crops for control of weeds
Fig. 2.14: Losses caused by weeds are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Critical stages of vegetable crops for control of weeds
1. Tomato and brinjal 2-6 weeks after transplanting
2. Potato 3-6 weeks after planting
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3. Onion 2-9 weeks after transplanting
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Prepare a chart of weeds associated with vegetable crops
Material required
Writing material.
Procedure
1. Visit a nearby vegetable field to collect rede
2. Note down the crop associated with the weed collected.
3. Note down the local names of the collected weeds.
4. Note whether the weed has broad or narrow leaves.
Observations: The students should prepare a chart like thy one
given below and record their observations.
General familiarity chart of weeds
Date of collection
Site of collection
Activity 2
Collection of weeds and the preparation of a herbarium
A herbarium is a perennial collection of the most representative
specimen of weeds. It is very good learning material not only for
students who prepare it, but also for others who want to know the
flora of a particular area.
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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| Chapter -2.indd 32
NorTes
Material required
field notebook, blotting paper, collection bag, herbarium sheets,
pressing device, adhesive or cello tape, scissors or knife,
magnifying lens, forceps
Procedure
1. Select a fresh specimen of a plant with all the
important parts.
2. Spread the specimen in its natural form on a sheet of paper
that can absorb moisture (blotting paper) and place under
a press (or tightly press between two smooth surfaces).
3. Change the paper frequently to avoid fungal attack and
keep the specimen pressed.
4. Repeat the operation till the specimens are dry.
5. Paste the specimen on a herbarium sheet.
6. Note down the following information on the right side of the
bottom of the herbarium sheet.
¢ Common/local name
¢ Botanical name
e Family
¢ Growth habit
¢ Date of collection
¢ Site of collection or crop association or soil type
e Name of the crop associated
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Unwanted plants that grow in the crop field or its
surrounding areas are called :
Broad leaved weeds have as they germinate.
A weed that completes its life cycle in less than a year is
known as weed.
4. weeds spread only by seed and
vegetative means.
5. Parallel veins on the leaves are found in
weeds.
B. Multiple choice questions
1. Dodder (Cuscuta) is
(a) an annual weed
(b) a parasitic weed
(c) a narrow leaf weed
(d) a road leaf weed
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2. The botanical name of nut grass is
(a) Argemone mexicana
(b) Euphorbia hirta
(c) Chenopodium album
(d) Cyprus rotundus
3. The most common weeds found in vegetable crops
are
(a) annual
(b) biennial
(c) perennial
(d) None of the above
4. Bermuda grass is also known as
(a) doob grass
(b) field bindweed
(c) lamb’s quarter
(d) crab grass
5. The critical stage of weed control for potatoes
is
(a) 1-2 weeks after planting
(b) 3-6 weeks after planting
(c) 7-9 weeks after planting
(d) 10-12 weeks after planting
C. Subjective questions
1. Define weed. How are weeds harmful for a crop?
2. Classify weeds based on their life cycle and
morphological features.
3. Distinguish between broad leaved and narrow
leaved weeds.
D. Match the columns
A B
1. Monocot weeds _ (a) Consists of/ has a hard triangular stem
2. Dicot weeds (b) Completes life cycle in more than
two years
3. Sedges (c) Leaves are slender, long and have
parallel veins
4. Perennial weeds (d) Completes life cycle within two years
5. Biennial weeds _(e) Has taproot system with broad leaves
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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Session 2: WEED MANAGEMENT
Methods of Weed Control
Minimising infestation so that the crop
can be cultivated successfully is called
weed control. The various methods of
controlling weeds are given in Fig. 2.14.
Cultural
f Chemical Methods
Sato of weed L methods | Mechanical or physical methods
control
Mowing the weed is_ superficial
rs trimming of succulent and herbaceous
weeds. This inhibits the formation of
j seeds on the weed. Mowing keeps the
Biological growth of weeds under check,especially
methods
in a lawn. It should be followed by other
methods of weed control to stop spread
Fig. 2.14: Methods of weed control of perennials or the low-growing weeds
can become a problem. Mulching the
field is a practice of covering the open soil between
the rows and plants of the crop. The soil is covered by
organic matter, crop residues, polythene or paper. The
exposed areas between the crops get no sunlight when
they are covered with mulch. Due to this the weeds are
unable to germinate. Hoeing is effective in controlling
weeds in row crops. It has been widely used as a weeding
tool for centuries.
Hand weeding is effective against annual and biennial
weeds. Pulling out weeds from the field with the help
of a khurpi is called hand weeding. This facilitates the
loosening of soil and improves its drainage and aeration.
Cultural methods
Various agronomic practices, such as crop rotation,
intercropping, soil solarisation, etc. have been found to
be effective on weed management.
Crop rotation
It is growing different types of crops in the same field in
sequenced seasons. In mono culture, a particular type of
weed grows with a particular type of crop. Crop rotation
helps to break the life cycle of weeds and prevents any
weed species from becoming dominant.
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Intercropping NoTES
It is growing of two or more crops next to each other
at the same time. Intercropping suppresses weeds
better than the mono cropping system. It provides the
advantage of utilising crops themselves as tools for
weed management.
Transplanting
It is when healthy and disease free 4-6 weeks old
seedlings are transplanted from one area to another.
They have the ability to compete with weeds.
Soil solarisation
It is the method of increasing soil temperature through
absorption of sunlight, so that it destroys the seed and
other propagules of a weed. Solarisation is done by
covering the soil with black polythene during extreme
summer for 4 to 6 weeks. The soil temperature may reach
up to 40-55°C depending upon the intensity of sunlight.
Many annual weeds can be controlled by this method.
Biological method of weed control
Living organisms, such as fungi, bacteria and insects
are used to control weed population. Such herbicides
are broadly known as bio-herbicides. When fungal
spores or fungi are used to control the weeds it is
known as myco (fungi) herbicide. The fungi, such as
Pythopthora sp., Colletotrichum sp. and Bipolaris sp.
are used as myco-herbicide. Insects, such as pallister
beetles and flea beetles also damage weeds by feeding
on the tender parts. Cochineal insects eradicate the
weeds in the prickly pear. Sometimes the pests used
for controlling weeds may remain in dormant stage in
soil for a longer period. Root borers, stem borers or fruit
borers are more destructive than foliage feeders. This
method is uncommon as it needs technical knowledge.
Bio-herbicides and weed insect-pest may infect or infest
the main crop along with weeds.
Chemical control
Labour being uneconomical and also because hand
weeding takes longer time, certain chemicals are
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used to control the weeds. These chemicals are
called herbicides. Chemical control of weeds is an
economical method, requires less time and labour
and controls weeds uniformly. There are ample
pre-emergence, post-emergence, selective and
non-selective herbicides available.
Types of Herbicides
Types of herbicides based on
their time of application
Pre-plant Pre-emergence
herbicides herbicides
Post-emergence
herbicides
—->.~ Aaa
Fig. 2.15: Types of herbicides
Pre-plant herbicides
This is a group of herbicides that is applied before planting
the main crop. These herbicides may be fumigants or
non-selective chemicals and are lethal to all the plants
that come in their contact. These are useful in controlling
pre-emerged as well as emerging weeds. Most of these are
applied to the soil. Some may be sprayed onto the weeds,
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in case of perennial weeds. Pre-plant herbicides include NoTEs
Dazomet, Diquat, K-pam, Metam sodium, Pelargonic
acid, Alachlor, Pendimethalin, Fluchloralin, etc.
Pre-emergence herbicides
This is another group of herbicides that attack the weeds
at the seedling stage. These herbicides are generally
selective. These are applied to soil after removing the
existing weeds. Pre-emergence herbicides must be
applied before the germination of weed seeds. Since
there are various germination periods of weed species
and a selection of herbicides, it is generally essential
to use different herbicides at different times of the year
to achieve best control. For example, Flumioxazin,
Isoxaben, Napropamide, Oryzalin (Surflan), Oxadiazon,
oxyfluorfen, Pendimethalin, Prodiamine and Trifluralin
are included in this group.
Post-emergence herbicides
Post-emergence herbicides are applied onto weeds at the
seedling stage. These are very selective and control only
a narrow range of weed species. Fluazifop-p-butyl and
Sethoxydim control most annual grasses and Clethodim
controls annual bluegrass as well as other grasses.
These products include the phenoxy group of
herbicides, such as 2,4-D, which selectively control
broad leaved weeds. The group of non-selective
herbicides includes diquat, glufosinate and pelargonic
acid, and oils of plants, such as euginol.
Selective herbicides
These are used against specific group of weeds and
do not prove harmful for other crops. Pendulum,
Surflan, Treflan, etc., 2,4-D, etc., kill broad leaved
weeds but do not harm the monocots, while Fusilade
(fluazifop) controls monocot weeds and not the broad
leaved plants.
Non-selective herbicides
These prove lethal to almost all monocot and dicot weeds
when they come in its contact, for example diquat.
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS O
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Table 2.3: Chemical weed control in vegetable crops
S.No. Crop Herbicide formulation Dose (kg/ha) Time of application
Fluchloralin 1.0 Pre-plant
1. Potato Pendimethalin 2.0 Pre-emergence
Metribuzin 0.2-0.3 Post-emergence
Fluchloralin 0.75-1.5 Pre-plant
Salsonas and Pendimethalin 1.0 Pre-emergence
2. cauliflower Alachlor 2.0-3:0 Pre-emergence
Isoproturon 0.75-1.0 Post-emergence
Alachlor 1.0-2.0 :
Flochiloralin 1.0-1.5 Pre-transplant (soil
; incorporation)
3 anaes ae Alachlor 1.5-2.0 Pre-transplant (surface
a Pendimethalin 0.5-1.0 application)
Oxyflurofen 0.62 Post-transplant
Fluchloralin 0.75-1.5 Bre Zea (el
incorporation)
4, | Carrot Pendimethalin 1.0 er Ne fercence
Nitrofen 0 “hc 8
Nitrofen 1.0 Post- emergence
. Benthiocarb 1.0 Pre-emergence
Soy Redien Fluchloralin OFS Pre-emergence
6 Pea Linuron 0.5 Pre-emergence
, as Pendimethalin 1.0 Pre-emergence
Trifluralin RO) Bre Dian is ou
incorporation)
AlsePfior 1-1.25 Pre-transplant (surface
7. Tomato application)
Fluchloralin 1L2IS Bho an Spent Sumac’
application)
Alachlor 1-2 Pre-emergence
8 Ok Fluchloralin 0.5-1.0 atone an
ue Alachlor le2 P
Pre-emergence
9 Brinial Fluchloralin 1-1.25 raed ion
, mn) Pendimethalin IFO P
Pre-emergence
Bottle Fluchloralin 0.5-1.0 Pre-plant (soil
10. guard and 1-1.25 incorporation)
Butachlor
cucumber Pre-emergence
11. Spinach Benthiocarb 1.0 Pre-emergence
@
®@ @
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SOLANACEOUS CRopP CULTIVATOR — CLass X
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Application of Herbicide
The success of weed control depends on the method
of application of the herbicide. The important factor
in the application of herbicide is that it should target
the foci accurately and in measured quantity only.
Different equipment is used for herbicide as per the
formulation and area to be covered. On small holdings
or in a greenhouse it can be applied through a backpack
handpump sprayer or duster, whereas, in big fields
or farms, a tractor unit is more desirable. In large
nurseries, over-the-top sprayers are used, which cover
full beds will be best. Flat fan nozzles, equally spaced on
a boom, are used to get the most uniform distribution of
pre-emergence liquid herbicidal formulations.
Hollow or cone nozzles on a boom are used in case
of spraying post-emergence herbicides on weeds.
Granular herbicides can be applied through common
types of spreaders. Herbicide granules can be spread
with drop-type or side-throw-type of spreaders.
Equipment used to spray weedicide
Sprayers are of two types — knapsack and foot sprayer.
They are used to spray not only herbicides but also
insecticides, fungicides, soluble fertilisers etc. in
vegetable crops.
Duster is used for dusting fungicides, insecticides,
herbicides, etc. in a powder form.
Precautions to keep in mind while
applying weedicides
1. Before application read and follow the directions
written on the label.
2. Calibrate your spray equipment and keep it in good
working order.
3. Always wear gloves, cap and mask during the
spraying of weedicides.
4. Do not apply on a hot sunny day or during strong
wind conditions.
5. Do not apply just before and after a rainfall.
6. Stop entry of animals and workers in the
spraying area.
Fig. 2.16: Knapsack sprayer
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS ©O
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Notes 7. Post-emergence herbicides should be sprayed when
the weeds are at the initial stage.
8. Make a record of major weed species in the vegetable
field and use it for planning the spraying schedule
for the next season.
9. Competitive crops should be grown in weedy areas
and non-competitive crops in the cleaner areas of
the field.
10. After spraying weedicides, wash your hands properly
with soap in running water.
11. Clean the sprayer or duster by removing the
remaining weedicides.
12. Properly oil or grease the sprayer or duster, before
and after spraying, to check faulty application.
Practical Exercise
Collect information about herbicides commonly used in your
locality
Material required: Writing material.
Procedure
Collect information about commonly used herbicides in your
locality either from the farmers or from the agro service centre
and prepare the following chart.
e Formulation may be dry or wet.
¢ Time of application means pre-planting, pre-emergence or
post-emergence.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Growing two or more crops next to each other at the same
time is called
2. Soil temperatures must reach above 2e 3 to
facilitate solarisation.
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4.
Be
The different types of crops that grow in the same field in
sequenced seasons are known as
Pulling out weeds from the field by hand with the help of
a khurpiis called .
Diquat is a herbicide.
Multiple choice questions
il
2.
Herbicides applied prior to the emergence of the weed
seed is known as
(a) pre-plant application.
(b) pre-emergence application.
(c) post-emergence application.
(d) All of the above
Pendimethalin can be used in potato as a pre-emergence
spray and the dosage is
(a) 1 kg/ha.
(b) 2 kg/ha.
(c) 3 kg/ha.
(d) None of these
Which of the following herbicides can be used as a
pre-plant/transplant?
(a) Alachlor
(b) Pendimethalin
(c) Fluchloralin
(d) All of the above
Living organisms, such as fungi, bacteria and insects
that are used to control weed population are known as
(a) myco-herbicides
(b) persistent herbicides
(c) bio-herbicides
(d) herbigation
Herbicides applied before planting the main crop are
(a) pre-plant herbicides
is pre-emergence herbicides
(c) post-emergence herbicides
(d) All of the above
. Subjective questions
Ihe
Explain different methods of weed control in vegetable
crops.
Classify the various types of herbicides used in weed
control.
Discuss the chemical method of weed control in
solanaceous vegetables.
Write various precautions to be followed during the
spraying of weedicides.
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
Chapter -2.indd 41
NoTEs
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| Chapter -2.indd 42
Notes
D. Match the columns
oa B WN
A
. Soil solarisation
. Mowing
. Mulching
. Herbicide
. Myco-herbicide
B
(a) Covering exposed surface of soil
(b) Use of chemicals
)
)
(c) Biological control
(d) Superficial trimming
)
(e) Raised soil temperature
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INTRODUCTION
Solanaceous vegetables are more susceptible to different
types of pests like insects, nematodes and mites. In India,
upto 50-80% yield loss of vegetable crops incurs due
to various diseases. The crop loss caused by diseases,
such as early blight of brinjal is 78%, wilt is 10-60%,
Begomovirus is 100%, phomopsis blight is 30-50% and
chili anthracnose is 30-80%.
The use of fungicides and insecticides in vegetables to
control diseases and insect-pests is increasing because
of intensive farming practices and expanding cultivation
into new areas and in seasons beyond the traditional
range of crops. Pesticides are synthetic compounds
and are hazardous for the environment and also for
non-target insects. Indiscriminate use and improper
application of pesticides create ecological imbalances
due to the destruction of beneficial insects and the
emergence of pesticide resistant species and strains.
The increasing use of pesticides is a major factor for
the rising cases of pesticide residue in vegetables. In the
past, a single approach to control pests and diseases
was in practice, which was neither economical nor safe.
Therefore, a systematic approach of integrated pest or
disease management (IPM or IDM) was adopted.
Chapter -3.indd 43
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Nores IPM includes all types of control measures, such
as physical, mechanical, biological and chemical as
per the suitability of application, that control the pest
population below the economic injury level.
It is a multidisciplinary approach, which includes
different tactics, such as analysis of habitat, knowledge
of crop husbandry, soil tillage, healthy seeds,
balanced fertilisers, well-timed irrigation, sanitation,
recommended spacing, tolerant and resistant varieties,
use of natural enemies, release of parasitoids and
predators and the use of need-based biological and
chemical pesticides or fungicides. In this unit, you will
learn about insect-pests and diseases that damage
solanaceous crops. You will also learn about the control
measures for various pests and diseases including the
IPM and IDM approach.
SEssION 1: Mayor INSECT-PESTS OF
SOLANACEOUS CROPS
Insect-pests are a menace to vegetable production. They
generally attack crop at all its stages. It is essential to
adopt control measures for insect-pests at the right
time to manage the pest population and minimise the
yield loss. Knowledge about the insect-pests of the crop,
the characteristics of the insects, their nature and the
damage they cause helps to identify and manage the
pest effectively.
Tomato Fruit Borer
Tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera) caterpillars
are greenish in colour with dark brown and grey
outline along the body. A caterpillar is the most active
stage of tomato fruit borer. At a young stage, the larva
feeds on tender foliage while at the advanced stage
it bores circular holes in the fruit and feeds inside
the pulp.
Control
¢ Use tolerant varieties like Punjab Kesari, Punjab
Chhuhara, BT-1 and BT-32.
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¢ Deep summer ploughing can expose the larvae and NoTES
pupae to sunlight and predation of birds.
e Plant marigold (40 days old) as a trap crop with every
16 rows of tomato (25 days old) to attract the larvae.
Collect the larvae from the marigold flowers and
destroy them.
e Place 15-20 T-shaped bird perches per ha to invite
insectivorous birds.
¢ Use HaNPV_ (Helicoverpa armigera nuclear
polyhedrosis virus) @ 250 LE (larval equivalent)/ha
during evening hours.
e Periodically release egg parasitoid, such as
Trichogramma chilonis or T. pretiosum @ 1,00,000
egg /ha.
¢ In the early stages, spray 4% NSKE (neem seed
kernel extract) to kill the larvae.
e Apply Novaluron 10 EC/1.5ml1/1 or Quinalphos 25
EC/2ml 40 SP/1g/1.
Aphids
Aphids or Aphis gossypii are soft bodied insects. They
are also known as plant lice. The tiny insects may be
green to black in colour and are found in a cluster on
the tender parts of the plant. Tomato aphid adults are
fragile, slender and minute with fringed wings. They
harm the crop constantly by sucking sap from the
lower leaves and the tender shoots of the plant. Aphids
exude honey dew, which attracts ants and develops a
sooty mold. The leaves curl up. They act as a vector for
transmission of disease causing viruses.
Control
Spray the crop with dimethoate @ 0.03% or methyl
demeton @ 0.025% or phosphomedon @ 0.04% for
effective control of aphids.
Whitefly
Whitefly or Bemisia tabaci adults are white tiny
scale-like insects covered with a white waxy bloom.
Nymphs and adults both feed on the upper surface of
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NoTEs the leaves by sucking cell sap. The affected parts of the
plant show yellowing and wrinkling of leaves. It also
transmits leaf curl viral disease.
Control
¢ Remove weed hosts, which harbour the white flies
to reduce the incidence of whiteflies and associated
viral diseases.
¢ Treat seeds with imidacloprid 70 WS @ 2.5 g per
kilogram to provide protection for 25-30 days.
¢ Use a nylon net (200 mesh) covering for 25-30 days
to avoid insect infestation in the nursery.
e Analternate spray of neem seed kernel extract (NSKE)
4 per cent or neem soap @ 10g/litre and triazophos
40 EC, 10, 20, 30 and 45 days after transplanting, is
effective for the control of white flies.
Leaf Miner
Leaf miner larvae are orange yellow and apodous.
Maggots enter the leaf and eat the mesophyll of the
leaves by making tunnels and zigzag structure on the
leaves. Remove and destroy the severely infested leaves.
Control
e Spraying NSKE (neem _ seed _ kernel _ extract)
@ 4.0 per cent along with sticker is effective. This pest
can be controlled by spraying the crop with Cartap
hydrochloride 50% SP @ 250-300 gram/acre.
e These natural enemies, particularly larval and
pupal parasitoids, are active between the months of
July-August.
e These parasitoids can be used to control leaf
miner insect.
Leaf Hopper or Jassids
Leaf hopper or jassids (Amrasca biguttula) nymphs and
adults are green and move diagonally when disturbed.
They suck the sap from the leaves, leaving them yellow
and curling upwards. In severe conditions, the leaves
become brown, dry and fall down.
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Control NoTEs
¢ Treat the seeds with imidacloprid (3g/kg), which
gives protection for up to 40-50 days after sowing.
Also apply carbofuran @ 1.0kg/ha in the soil at the
time of sowing.
¢ Dip the root of the seedling for one hour in
imidacloprid17.8 SL @ 1ml/litre of water. This will
protect the crop for 30 days after transplanting.
¢ Spraying NSKE @ 4% at an interval of 10 days is
also effective.
¢ Applying imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.35 ml per litre or
thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 0.35 ml litre, after 25 days
of transplanting, at an interval of 10-15 days is also
efisetive,
Shoot and Fruit Borer
Leucinodes orbonalis have black and brown patches
and dots show on the white forewings of the moth.
The larvae are light pink in colour. Initially, the larvae
bore into shoots and kill the growing point of the plant.
The affected shoot wilts or droops. Adult caterpillars
bore into the fruits. At the entrance hole, fecal pellets
are visible.
Control
e Regularly clip and burn the affected and withered
dead shoots and leaves.
¢ Spray Fenpropathrin 30 EC@0.75 ml/lorEmamectin
benzoate 5 SC @ 0.35 G/litre, alternatively at 15-day
intervals when the plant is in the vegetative and
flowering stage. It is effective against shoot and
fruit borer.
e Use sex pheromone lucilure @ 100 traps/ha at
20-25 days intervals.
Chili and Capsicum
Thrips
Scirtothrips dorsalis and Thrips palmi are minute
insects with fringed wings. Both adults and nymphs
damage the crop and lacerate leaf tissues and curl
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NoTEs the leaves inwards. This incidence is severe during
dry periods.
Control
e Sow seed after treatment with imidacloprid 70WS
@5-10 gram / kg seed.
¢ Cover the nursery with nylon net (200 mesh) to
protect nursery plants from thrips till the plant is
25-30 days old.
e Foliar apply acetamiprid 20SP @ 0.2 ML / litre
water or dimethoate 30 EC @1.5 ml / litre water or
Emamectin benzoate 5SG @0.4 gram /litre water
or imidacloprid 17.8SL @0O.5 ml/litre water at an
interval of 10-15 days.
e Avoid spraying same chemical repeatedly. Stop foliar
spray of chemicals before 10 days of flowering.
¢ Trips can be controlled by blue polyethene coated
with a sticky material like castor oil or grease
(20-25polyethene/ hac) at equal distance.
Mites
Polyphagotarsonemus latus, Tarsonemus_ translucens
and Tetranychus cinnabarinus are very small and white
in colour. They are difficult to see with naked eyes. They
make the leaves curl downwards.
Control
Foliar Spray Buprofezin 25 SC @ 1.2 ml/litre water or
Chlorfenapyr 10 SC @ 2ml/ litre water or Dimethoate
30 EC @ 2ml/ litre water or Fenpyroximate 5 EC @
1.2 ml/litre water at 10-15 days interval is effective to
control mites.
Green Peach Aphid
Green peach aphid or Myzus persicae are tiny, succulent,
pear-shaped and vary in colour from yellow and green
to black. They appear on newly emerging shoots and on
the lower side of the leaves. They suck the sap from the
tender parts and affect the plant’s vigour. They secrete
a sweet substance, which attracts ants and also form a
sooty mould.
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Control
Treat seeds with imidacloprid 70 WS @12 g/kg of seed.
Foliar apply thiamethoxam 25WG @ 80 gm/acre or
emamectin benzoate @W0.5 ml/litre of water.
Insect Pests of Solanaceous Vegetables
Fig. 3.2: Aphids in tomato
Fig. 3.3: Leaf hopper in brinjal Fig. 3.4: Aphids in brinjal
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Identify the symptoms caused by mites and thrips in chili.
Material required
Infested specimen of chili
Procedure
1. Examine the sample carefully.
2. If the leaf shows upward curling (cupping) it has been
infested by thrips.
3. Ifthe leaf shows downward curling it is attacked by mites.
4. Suggest suitable control measures.
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NorTes
Activity 2
Identify the major insect pests in your nearby area.
Material required
Insect net, collection box and writing material.
Procedure
il,
Visit a nearby farmer’s field and note down the following
information:
2. Crop grown in the field; and stage and age of the crop.
3. Collect insect pests from the crops.
4. Identify the insect pests.
5. Write control measures for the collected insect pests.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Tomato’s fruit borer can be kept away from the crop by
growing as trap crop.
2. Adults of are fragile, slender and minute with
fringed wings.
3. Maggots of mines into the leaf and feeds on
the mesophyll of the leaves.
4. Leaf hopper or jassids’ leaves become yellow and
5. The leaves of the chili plant affected by show
downward curling.
6. Larvae of bore into shoots and kill growing
| Chapter -3.indd 50
point of brinjal plant.
. Multiple choice questions
1.
The most active stage of insect of fruit borer of tomato
is
(a) adult
(b) caterpillar
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
The number of pheromone traps used to control the
moths of chili fruit borer are
(a) 5 trap/ha
(b) 7 trap/ha
(c) 9 trap/ha
(d) 11 trap/ha
Which one of the following is an egg parasitoid?
(a) Tetranychus cinnabarinus
(b) Epilachna
(c) Trichogramma chilonis
(d) None of the above
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4. In thrips infestation NoTEs
(a) leaves curl upwards
(b) leaves curl inwards
(c) growing point kills
(d) holes can be seen in the fruit
5. Aphids damage crop by
(a) sucking cell sap
(b) secreting sugary substance
(c) vector of virus
(d) All of the above
C. Subjective questions
1. Explain brinjal’s fruit and shoot borer and its
control measures.
2. What are the control measures of tomato’s fruit borer?
3. Write about chili’s fruit borer and its control measures.
D. Match the columns
A B
1. Aphids (a) Sex pheromone
2. LuciLure (b) Yellowing and wrinkling
of leaves
3. Whitefly (c) Zig-zag pattern on leaves
4. Leaf miner (d) Kills growing point of plant
5. Shoot and fruit borer (e) Vectors
Session 2: Mayor DISEASES OF
SOLANACEOUS CROPS
What is a Disease?
A successful interaction between virulent pathogen
and susceptible host in favourable conditions is
called disease. Diseases are caused by fungi, bacteria
and viruses. Disease causing organisms are called
pathogens. Pathogens may be soil borne, carried
through seeds or disperse through wind and water.
Some viral diseases are transmitted by insect vectors.
Some of the most common diseases of solanaceous
crops are anthracnose, wilt, bacterial spot, bacterial
blight, damping off, early blight, late blight, leaf curl,
mosaic, powdery mildew, rots, and septorial leaf
blight, little leaf, leaf curl, bacterial canker, buck eye
rot, fruit rot, etc.
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Nores A few of the major diseases of solanaceous vegetables
have been discussed below.
Damping off
This is acommon disease among nursery plants, tomato
seedlings, chili and brinjal that are generally attacked
by the soil borne fungi. Fungi like Phytophthora,
Pythium sp. are the causal organisms. Fungi infect
seedlings in the collar region causing decay of tissues.
Infected seedling cannot stand upright and collapse.
It is commonly seen during the rainy season and under
water stagnation conditions.
Control
e During the rainy season, the seedlings should be
grown on a raised bed.
¢ Soil solarisation and sterilisation may reduce the
soil borne inoculum of fungi.
¢ Soil drench with mancozeb or carbendazim (2-3g/
litre of water) also reduces infection.
¢ Treat the seed with trichoderma 5g/kg seed.
Early blight
It is a fungal disease commonly seen in tomato, brinjal
and potato. The causal organism of this disease is
Alternaria alternata f. sp. lycopersici and Alternaria
solani. Irregular brown leaf spots appear on a marginal
portion of leaves, which enlarge and become necrotic
patches. Fungi is dispersed through air and favoured by
high temperature.
Control
Two foliar sprays of mancozeb 2 gm/litre or zineb 75
WP @ 1.5-2 gm/litre of water are beneficial.
Phomopsis blight of brinjal
It is a fungal disease of brinjal caused by Phomopsis
vexans. Clearly defined circular, light brown spots
appear on the lower leaves. On fruits pale to light brown
sunken spots develop, which later coalesce to form
bigger patches.
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Control NoTEs
e Use disease-free seed material.
¢ Treat the seed with carbendazim 2.5 gm/kg of seed.
¢ Collect and burn the diseased twigs and
plan material.
e Foliar spray with carbendazim 0.1% or 0.15%
carbendazim + mancozeb (1.5 gm/litre of water) is
found to be effective.
Anthracnose or die back of chili
It is a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum capsici.
Fungus is seed borne, which also disperse through
wind. It starts from tender twigs from the top of the
plant causing necrosis and withering. Drying starts
from top to bottom, hence it is called die back. Small,
irregular, sunken, light brown lesions with concentric
rings can be seen on leaves, shoots and fruits.
Control
¢ Treat the seed with carbendazim @ 2.5 gram/kg seed.
e Remove and burn diseased parts of the plant.
¢ Foliar spray of Chlorothanonil 25 EC @1.5 gram/
litre water or propineb 3.5 gram / litre water is found
effective for control of the disease.
Bacterial wilt
It is a common disease of all solanaceous vegetable
crops. Bacterium Ralstonia solanocearum is found
associated with the disease. Sudden wilting of plant
without yellowing and collapse of entire plant are
primary symptoms. When an infected plant is cut and
dipped in a glass of water, a thread like milky substance
oozes out from the cut end of the stem.
Control
e Use disease resistance varieties.
¢ Adopt long-term crop rotation without
solanaceous crops.
¢ pH of soil should not acidic.
¢ Before transplanting, treat the roots of the seedling
with streptocycline 150 ppm (1 gram in 6 litre water)
for 30 minutes.
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NoTEs Fusarium wilt
Leaves of the affected plants become yellow and droop.
Later it may cause the death of the whole plant.
Control
¢ Avoid continuous solanaceous crop cultivation on
the same piece of land.
¢ Treat the seed with carbendazim @ 2.5 gm/kg seed
before sowing.
e Spraying tebuconazole@ 1 gram/ litre or carbendazim
@ 0.2% at one week intervals is found to be effective.
Leaf curl disease
It is an important viral disease of the tomato and chili
plant. The virus is transmitted by the whitefly. The
leaves show downward rolling, curling, twisting and
chlorosis. The plants show stunted growth with short
internodes. It gives a bushy appearance to the plant.
Such plants do not bear flower or fruit at a later stage.
Control
¢ To avoid whitefly attack, the nursery should be
covered with a nylon net (40 mesh) or sprayed
with insecticide @ 4-6 days interval to check the
transmission of the disease.
¢ Uproot and destroy the infected plant as soon as it is
seen, otherwise it could cause further infection and
spread of disease.
¢ Use barrier crops like maize, bajra and sorghum.
e Place yellow sticky traps (20 traps/ha) to control the
vectors.
¢ Spray the crop with imidacloprid (3 ml/10 litre water)
to avoid infestation of whiteflies.
e At the time of transplanting, dip the roots of the
seedlings in imidacloprid 17.8SL@0.5 ml/litre water
for 2 hours to control the disease.
Little leaf of brinjal
The characteristic symptoms of this disease are excessive
shortening of leaves. Numerous leaves aggregate in a
bunch giving a bushy appearance. Due to shortening
of internodes the plant becomes a dwarf. The infected
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plants are totally unproductive and do not bear flower
or fruit. Organisms like Mycoplasma are responsible for
this. The pathogen is transmitted by vector leafhopper.
Control
¢ Uproot infected plants and burn them as soon as the
first sign of initial symptoms appear.
e Avoid early transplanting to escape leafhopper
population.
e Spray imidacloprid 3 ml/10 litre water to avoid the
secondary infection of the disease.
Root knot nematode
Soil borne nematode Meloidogyne incognita infests almost
all solanaceous vegetables through the roots. Nematode
develops inside the root, causing swelling and knots.
This affects the uptake of water and minerals from the
soil, ultimately affecting the growth of the plant.
Judicious or need based application of nematicides
is recommended. Application of Carbofuran 3G @
1 kg ai/ha is found effective for vegetable crops under
field condition.
Diseases of Solanaceous Vegetables
Fig.3.5: Early blight Fig.3.6: Late blight Fig.3.7: Leaf curl Fig.3.8: Root knot
of tomato of tomato in tomato in tomato
Fig.3.9: Phomopsis Fig.3.10: Little leaf Fig.3.11: Cercospora Fig.3.12: Fusarium
blight in brinjal in brinjal leaf spot in brinjal wilt in tomato
INTEGRATED PEsT AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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NorTes 5 =
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Identify the symptoms caused by bacterial wilt in brinjal and
chili crops.
Material required
Infected chili or a brinjal plant, knife, glass and water, etc.
Procedure
1. Observe the infected plant.
2. Select the plants that show wilting in the field.
3. Fill a glass with water.
4. Cut the stem of the affected plant with the help of a knife.
5. Put the cut end into a glass of water.
6. Observe the milky secretion oozing out from the cut end of
the stem.
7. Bacterial wilt affected plants will show symptoms of a
thread like milky ooze.
Activity 2
Identify disease specimens of solanaceous crops.
Material required
Magnifying glass, disease specimens, pen, notebook, etc.
Procedure
Visit a nearby vegetable field and identify the crop.
Collect diseased samples from the field.
Observe the disease sample or specimen carefully.
Observe the symptoms with the help of magnifying lenses.
Write down the name of the disease.
Write down the name of the causal organism.
Write down the control measures.
Check Your Progress
A. Fillin the blanks
i. is a disease at nursery stage.
Af Se
a. is a disease caused by coplasma like organisms.
3. In disease, wilting is observed from top
to bottom.
4. Knotting on roots is caused by
5. Leaf curl in chili is caused by
B. Multiple choice questions
1. In which disease is formation of a concentric ring found?
(a) Anthracnose
(b) Late blight
(c) Wilt
(d) None of the above
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2. Irregular brown spots on the leaves during the early Notes
period of growth is observed in
(a) late blight
(b) damping off
(c) leaf curl
(d) early blight
3. Damping off is a disease of
(a) leaves
(b) fruits
(c) seedling
(d) flowers
4. Milky white 00ze from a cut stem is the sign of
infection.
(a) nematode
(b) bacterial
(c) fungal
(d) viral
C. Subjective questions
1. Write short notes on the following
(a) Early blight of tomato
(b) Late blight of potato
(c) Leaf curl disease in chili
(d) Little leaf of brinjal
(e) Root knot nematode in solanaceous crops
2. What are the major differences between late blight and
early blight?
3. Write the symptoms of damping off with its effective
management practices.
D. Match the columns
A B
1. Root knot (a) Streptocycline
2. Leaf hopper (b) Reduce nematode population in
the soil
3. Soil drenching (c) Meloidogyne incognita
4. Bacterial wilt (d) Transmitted little leaf of brinjal
5. Marigold (e) Carbendazim
SEssION 3: INTEGRATED PEST AND DISEASE
MANAGEMENT OF SOLANACEOUS CROPS
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Integrated pest management is an efficient and
economical approach to controlling pests in crops.
INTEGRATED PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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Chemical
Biological
control
control
Cultural
methods
v
Behavioural
methods
It makes use of virtually all
methods of pest control, including
natural pesticides, beneficial insects,
special cultivation practices, and
even chemical pesticides in the right
measure at the right time. Some
practical techniques of IPM are
described below. (Fig. 3.13)
Physical
control
Cultural methods
Routine agronomic practices can
be utilised for minimising pest
infestation by slight modification in
timing or method of their application.
These functions are preventive
methods. The field operations right
from field preparation to harvesting
or post harvesting can reduce the
Mechanical
methods
Fig.3.13: Integrated Pest Management (IPM) population of one pest species or
the other.
Resistant cultivars
Grow insect and_ disease resistant varieties
recommended for specific regions. Chilli, Pusa,
Sadabahar variety is resistant to mites and thrips, Kashi
Gaurav variety is tolerant to thrips and resistant to
fruit rot. Tomato, Kashi Aman variety is resistant to leaf
curl and Kashi Abhay is a hybrid tolerant to leaf curl.
Brinjal, the fruits of Pant Samrat variety is moderate
against stem borer insect.
Clean cultivation
Destroy unwanted crop stubble after the crop is
harvested. Destruction of cucurbit vines and stubbles
of rapeseed mustard after the crop season kills the
population of pumpkin beetle and painted bug,
respectively.
Tillage
Deep ploughing and intercultural operations expose
pests, such as army worm, cut worms, borers and
white grubs, termites, and mole cricket to the vagaries
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of nature. Thus, this helps to reduce pest infestation NoTES
in crops.
Sowing time
The change in sowing or planting time is aimed to disturb
the synchrony between the host and pest populations.
Early sown cucurbits and rapeseed-mustard escape the
attack of pumpkin beetle and aphids, respectively.
Intercropping
It helps in reducing the incidence of certain pests by
making microclimate less favourable for them. It also
hinders free movement of pests among plants of the
same species. Intercropping of cabbage with tomato
reduces the infestation of diamond black moth, while
that of tomato with marigold is useful in checking fruit
borer and nematodes.
Crop-rotation
It means altering the category of crop grown on a specific
area of land from year to year. Crop rotations are mostly
done in a span of 3 to 7 years. Avoid growing the same
crop, or crops of the same family, over and over again
in the same field. Ratooning should be avoided as it
promotes the survival of brinjal shoot and fruit borer.
Avoid sequential cultivation of vegetable cultivars as
they are more prone to attack by insect pests and needs
effective protection for profitability.
Trap crops
A ‘trap crop’ is grown as a companion to the main crop
to attract pests away from the main crop. To reduce
the incidence of diamond black moth, leaf webber, web
worm and aphids, grow mustard as a trap crop with
cabbage. Marigold planted with tomato as a trap crop is
highly effective against fruit borer.
Nutrient and water management
Fertilisers should be applied in a balanced manner.
Excessive use of nitrogenous fertiliser intensifies the
incidence of sucking pests, such as jassids, whiteflies
and aphids. Likewise, excess use of water should also
be avoided as humidity increases pest population.
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Notes Physical control
It is the method of reducing pest population with
the help of devices that influence them physically
or adjust their physical environment. Manipulation
of temperature, humidity and light is used for this
purpose, for example, the use of light traps, pheromone
lures, hot water treatment,etc.
Mechanical methods
This reduces pest control by manual devices. Mechanical
methods along with physical and cultural methods are
effective in reducing pest populations.
Behavioural methods
Use insect traps to monitor or directly reduce the
population ofinsects. In this method visual lures,
chemical attractants, sticky bands and pheromones
are installed to attract insects.
Pheromone trap
e Pheromones may attract only the male insect.
¢ Use of Helilure for tomato fruit borer, Erivitlure for
lady finger fruit borer, and Leucine lure for brinjal
shoot and fruit borer is recommended as female sex
pheromones are beneficial.
¢ Use methyl eugenol traps against fruit flies.
e Pheromone traps can be used either for monitoring
(Straps /hectare), mass trapping or mating disruption
(25 or 100 traps/ha).
Biological control
Insects have some natural enemies. Predators,
parasitoids, microbes, birds and other animals are
useful in minimising insect pests.
e Predators are organisms that feed on other insects.
The organism is called predator and the insect is
known as the prey. For example, a lady bird beetle
feeds on aphids. Birds like crow, egret, cuckoo,
woodpecker, stork, warbler and babbler feed on
insects. Owls, bats and peacocks help to control rat
and mice population.
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A spotted lady beetle(Adalia bipunctata)
7
*.,
Fig.3.14: Biological pest control
feeding on an aphid colony
Parasites feed on other insects’ body parts, internally
or externally. For example, Trichogramma chilonis
feeds on the eggs of Helicoverpa armigera (fruit borer
of tomato).
Pathogens are microorganisms developed to help in
the killing of pests. This includes bacteria, viruses,
fungi, etc.
Virus Ha-NPV (Helicoverpa armigera Nuclear
polyhedrosis virus) is used against tomato fruit borer.
Botanical insecticides are naturally occurring
chemical substances (insect toxins) extracted
or derived from plants. They are also called
natural insecticides.
— Neem contains many active compounds like
azadirachtin, which acts as feeding deterrents.
It is effective on several types of insects, mites
and nematodes. Neem oil (2-5 per cent)is found
effective and neem cake (250 kg/ha)helps control
fruit and shoot borer.
— Nicotine is derived from tobacco and is used
to control insects, such as aphids and mites in
greenhouses.
Use pesticides judiciously, that is, the right
pesticides, in the right amount, at the right time,
in the right place.
Apply chemical pesticides only when other effective
methods are not available.
Choose less toxic and less persistent pesticides.
INTEGRATED PEsT AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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Fig.3.15: Biological pest control
A parasitoid wasp (Aleiodes indiscretus)
laying eggs on a caterpillar
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NoTES ¢ Choose selective pesticides which control the pest
species but leave beneficial species and neutral
species unharmed.
Integrated Disease Management (IDM)
IDM involves timely use of various combined measures
to reduce the pathogenic invasion. This involves site
selection and preparation, altering the planting practices,
use of resistant cultivars, modifying the environment,
pruning, thinning shading, etc., and use of pesticides,
if required. Along with this, following conventional
techniques, monitoring environmental factors, disease
forecasting and establishing economic thresholds are
also important. The disease incidence can be minimised
or eliminated by adopting the following tactics.
Cultural methods
e Tillage— soil-borne fungi, bacteria and nematodes
that serve as sources of infection, perpetuate in the
soil. When the soil is ploughed they get exposed
to the sun’s high temperature. This reduces their
population or activity within the soil.
¢ Field sanitation— plant pathogen (fungi, bacteria,
and virus) that survives on previous crop residues
and weeds in the field can serve as a major source
of inoculum. Clean cultivation means the removal
of crop residues and keeping the bunds clean to
minimise pest population in the field. Plant disease
can be controlled by regularly destroying diseased
plants or weeds. This disrupts the disease cycle and
is an effective source of control.
¢ Crop rotation— availability of susceptible hosts
every season or year after year increases the survival
or persistence of diseases. Crop rotation with crops
of other groups or different families breaks their
persistence. Starving pests by making susceptible
hosts unavailable for a long time makes it difficult
for the pests to survive.
¢ Resistant varieties— such varieties of flower crops
provide one of the most successful approaches
to the control of plant pathogens in many crops,
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especially those that cannot be controlled by other Notes
means. Some cultivars are resistant to a particular
disease and are, therefore, inherently less damaged
than other genetically related plants growing in the
same area.
e Alteration in sowing time— manipulation of
sowing time and selection of early or late varieties
also dodges the pathogens. Certain diseases, such
as early blight and late blight are time-bound and
require a particular stage of growth of the plant to
infect. Unavailability of susceptible stage keeps the
infection at bay.
e Seed treatment— most of the seed and soil borne
diseases, such as damping off, wilt, rots, dieback,
anthracnose, etc. attack the crop through seed or
soil. Seed treatment reduces the chances of infection.
¢ Crop density— high density of crop means
incidence of many diseases. Infections can move
easily from diseased to healthy plants in a dense
field. It is, therefore, desirable to plant the crop with
proper spacing.
Mechanical methods
It includes uprooting or pruning of diseased plants or
parts so that the infected plants or parts do not transmit
pathogens to healthy ones. Training and staking
the crop helps the plants so that their leaves do not
come in contact with the soil and thereby controlling
infection or infestation. Erecting nets, sticky bands
and mechanical traps control insect-vectors that may
transmit viruses.
Bio-control of plant diseases
Soil-borne diseases of tomato, brinjal, chilli and
capsicum caused by Pythium, Phytophthora,
Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Alternaria and Colletotrichum
species can be parasitised by Trichoderma harzianum,
Trichoderma viride and Gliocladium virens. These bio-
agents are effectively used either as soil application or
seed treatments. The Aspergillus niger has been proved
useful against Fusarium spp.
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NoTEs Chemical control
¢ Use of fungicides— chemical or a combination of
chemicals lethal to the fungi that saves the host from
infection is called fungicide. Fungicides, according
to their movement in the plant system, are of two
types. The first one is systemic,which when applied
on plants dissolves on the cell sap and is effective for
the whole plant irrespective of where it is applied.
For example, benlate, carbendazim, metalaxyl,
thiobendazol, propiconazole, etc. The second one is
contact fungicide whose action is restricted to the
area of the plant where it is applied. The examples
are sulphur, mancozeb, zineb, etc
¢ Fungicide application— soil drenching should be
undertaken when plants have a case of soil-borne
infection of fungi (wilt, damping off, root rot)
or nematodes (root-knot). Such fungicides are
carbendazim, maneb, etc., and the Formaldehyde
used for sterilization of seed bed.
e Seed treatment— this is a simple way to avoid
infection in the soil and the seed. Generally, seeds
are treated @ 2.0—2.5 g fungicide/kg of seed. A seed
dressing drum or earthen pitcher can be used for
treating the seeds. Fungicides used are carbendazim,
carboxin, oxathin, etc.
¢ Foliar application— the aerial parts affected by
foliar disease can be controlled by the foliar sprays
of the fungicidal formulations. Specialised sprayers
are available for the treatment. Generally, fungicides
are sprayed along with compatible insecticides. This
reduces the cost of application. These fungicides
are sulphur, copper oxichloride, maneb, zineb,
nabam, etc.
¢ Dip method— in this method, before planting,
seedlings and cuttings are dipped in the fungicidal
solution for a certain period to avoid infection. The
solutions could be carbendazim, maneb, sulphur,
zineb, etc.
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Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Managing aphids and whiteflies by using yellow sticky cards.
Material required
Yellow and blue sheet of plastic, thermocol sheets, a wooden
stick, cello tap, and adhesive (gum)
Procedure
ll,
De
Sk
nu
2 ce
Arrange the above items to prepare a sticky yellow or blue
card or trap.
Cut the plastic sheet and thermocol 9x6 inch in size.
Fix the yellow or blue plastic sheet on both sides of the
thermocol with the help of cello tap.
Attach the wooden stick on one side of the thermocol for
support and make a board.
Paste gum on both the sides of the plastic sheet.
Place the board in the field of any crop just 6 inch above
the crop height.
Next day, visit the field and observe the sticky trap cards.
You will find many insects on the board.
Identify the insects and count them.
Follow control measures according to the population of a
particular insect.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1.
2.
Intercropping of cabbage with tomato reduces infestation
of
Ratooning encourages shoots and fruit borer in
crop.
A crop grown as a companion that attracts pests away
from the main crop is called
Excess use of intensifies the incidence of
sucking pests.
A pheromone trap attracts only insects.
Methyl eugenol traps are useful against
A lady bird beetle is a kind of
B. Multiple choice questions
1.
Organism that feeds on other insects is called
(a) antagonist
(b) predators
(c) parasitoids
(d) None of the above
INTEGRATED PEsT AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
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NoTEs
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Notes 2. Botanical pesticides are obtained from
(a) animals
(b) fungus
(c) plants
(d) bacteria
3. Which of the following is not a sucking pest?
(a) Fruit and shoot borer
(b) Aphid
(c) Mites
(d) White fly
4. Damping off disease by using Carbendazim is a
(a) chemical control
(b) biologicalcontrol
(c) mechanical control
(d) cultural control
5. Trichoderma sp. can be used to control disease.
(a) soil borne
(b) water borne
(c) air borne
(d) viral
C. Subjective questions
1. Write a brief note about integrated disease management.
2. Describe the cultural methods of pest management.
3. Discuss the mechanical and behavioural methods of
pest management.
D. Match the columns
A B
1. Systemic fungicide (a) Tobacco plant
2. HA-NPV (b) Plant extract
3. Neem (c) Benlate
4. Botanical insecticides (d) Tomato fruit borer
5. Nicotine (e) Azadirachtin compound
© SOLANACEOUS CROP CULTIVATOR — CLass X
° ©
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INTRODUCTION
Solanaceous vegetables are delicate and perishable.
In order to prevent deterioration and maintain quality,
utmost care is essential right from the time of harvesting
till it reaches the consumer. The post-harvest life of
vegetables depends upon the judgements of maturity,
the right stage of harvesting and careful handling of
the produce. Harvesting of immature or over mature
vegetables leads to deterioration of quality and early
decay. If harvested at improper stages, the vegetables
may not grow into attractive sizes, colours, and flavours
and could be rejected by the consumers. Hence,the
correct maturity indices have to be observed along with
the right stage of harvesting with a proper method.
Post-harvest handling is equally important to maintain
the quality of produce and to enhance the storage life.
Post-harvest technology works on the principle ‘to save
means to produce’. Proper management of harvested
produce reduces losses after harvest, and makes the
harvested produce more nutritive and acceptable.
Besides eliminating spoilage and other food problems,
it also boosts the country’s economy by creating
rural industries. Different factors like pre-cooling,
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Notes washing, treatments, packaging, storage and careful
transportation are important in the maintenance of
harvested produce. These post-harvest factors influence
the shelf life and price of the vegetables in the markets.
It is essential for a cultivator, seeking maximum returns
from their produce, to have knowledge of harvesting,
and post-harvest handling of solanaceous vegetables.
Session 1: Maturity STANDARDS AND HARVEST
OF SOLANACEOUS CROPS
Maturity of Solanaceous Vegetables
Maturity is the attainment of the final stage of biological
development ofa plant, fruits or other plant parts. Itis also
called physiological maturity. Maturity stage differs from
crop to crop and also depends on the purpose for which
the produce is harvested. The stage of maturity at which
the produce is in the most desirable form and is harvested
as per the consumers’ preference, is called horticultural
maturity. In most of the vegetable crops, horticultural
maturity comes prior to physiological maturity. Brinjals
and chilies are harvested at horticultural maturity when
the crop is still tender and under development stage.
Solanaceous vegetables are non-climacteric and ripen
on the plant itself. In most cases, physiological maturity
overlaps the ripening process therefore the produce is
harvested after ripening. Tomatoes, potatoes and dry
chilies are harvested at physiological mature stage
when the crop is fully mature. Solanaceous vegetables
are mostly harvested depending on the distance to the
markets and the choice of the consumers.
Role of respiration in shelf life
Vegetables are classified in two groups-—climacteric
and non-climacteric, based on their respiration rate.
In climacteric vegetables, ripening is associated with
a rapid increase in respiration. This sudden rise in
respiration is called ‘climacteric rise’. On ripening, the
climacteric vegetables produce more ethylene than
non-climacteric vegetables. The ripening process in
climacteric vegetables will continue while attached
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to the plant or even after harvest. Non-climacteric NoTES
vegetables ripen on the plant itself and must be
harvested at the appropriate maturity stage. Tomato
and musk melon are climacteric vegetables, whereas,
cucumber, brinjal, pepper, summer squash, etc., are
non-climacteric vegetables.
Maturity Indices
Maturity indices indicate the stage of maturity of
vegetables to be harvested for fresh consumption,
storage or marketing to distant places. In vegetables,
it is very difficult to standardise the appropriate stage
of maturity. Growing experience (harvesting and
marketing) of a particular vegetable with important
parameters is the most excellent method to measure
optimum maturity.
Maturity Indices
Physical —
Chenical
Analysis
Visual
Methods
Specific
gravity
Days from
flowering to
harvesting
Acidity
Days from
planting to
harvesting
Sugar
content
Fig. 4.1: Maturity indices of solanaceous vegetable crops
Importance of maturity indices
1. To ensure the sensory (flavour, colour, aroma,
texture) and nutritional quality.
2. To ensure a sufficient post-harvest shelf life
3. To facilitate scheduling of harvest and packing
operations.
4. To ensure market price.
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NoTEs Determination of Maturity in Solanaceous
Vegetables
Visual method
The colour of the produce changes with maturity.
Colour is an important index that indicates the stage
of maturity. Most tender vegetables are green in colour,
which turn paler as they mature. Tender fruits are
glossy. Tomato and chili are harvested after ripening on
the plant so they are red in colour.
As for size, some vegetables reach a certain size. This
can be used as an index to determine the time of harvest.
Fig. 4.2: A view of maturity stages in tomato
Chemical analysis
Starch, acidity and sugar content are measured in
chemical analysis. More sugar content in the samples
indicates maturity. Acidity decreases with maturity.
Thus, low acid content indicates maturity of the produce.
Physical method
A pressure tester is used to measure the softness of
a fruit.
A fruit’s specific gravity increases, as it matures.
During harvesting, specific gravity to determine the right
time of harvesting is rarely used. It can be calculated by
dividing the weight of the produce in air by the weight
in water.
Computation method
This method involves calculating the days from flowering
to harvesting and from planting to harvesting.
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Harvesting of Solanaceous Vegetables
Tomato
(a)
Maturity indices: the harvesting stage
in tomato depends upon the purpose
for which the tomatoes are being used.
Generally, there are four types of maturity
stages found in tomatoes for harvesting.
(i) Green stage fruits are green in colour
but are fully mature. They are harvested
to be sent to distant markets.
(ii) Pink stage tomatoes are picked for the
local market. At this stage, the colour
Green
stage
Maturity
stages of
tomato
D4
Ripe
stage
Pink
\ stage
turns to pink or red at the end of the Fig. 4.3: Maturity stages of tomato
blossom.
(iii) Ripe stage fruits are red colour on the surface
and soft.
(iv) Fully ripe tomato fruits are soft in texture
and have reached their maximum colour
development. Starch is converted into sugar.
These fruits are either consumed or used for
canning and/or processing purpose.
Depending on its use and the distance to the market,
the tomato fruits are harvested manually by plucking
the fruits at different maturity stages.
In indeterminate cultivars, tomatoes can normally
be harvested at 80-100 days after planting and 70 days
after planting in determinate cultivars. Harvesting of
the fruit should be done at the right stage depending on
the consumption purpose of the fruit.
(a)
(b)
Dark green colour— when the dark green colour
fades, a reddish pink shade can be seen on the
fruit. Harvesting at this stage is suitable for fruits
to be shipped to long distance market. These fruits
are then sprayed with etheral or ethephon 48 hours
before shipping or transportation. Slicing a tomato
with a sharp knife is the easiest way to determine
the maturity of the fruit. If the seeds cut easily,
the fruit is too immature for harvest and will not
ripen properly.
Pink or the Breaker stage — the fruits are harvested
at breakage stage to ensure the best quality. In this
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Notes stage, a light pink colour can be seen on 1/4th of
the fruit. These fruits injure less during shipping
and often bring in a higher economic return than
less mature tomatoes.
Ripe or the Turning stage — at this stage, 3/4th of
the fruit is pink in colour. At the reddish pink stage
the fruits are still firm. Harvesting is done at this
stage to sell the fruits in the local markets.
Fully ripe or the Red ripe — the red ripe stage means
the tomato fruits are fully ripe and soft. These fruits
are used for canning and processing. Such fruits
must be harvested either in the early morning or late
evening. A twisting motion of the hand separates the
fruit from the plant. The harvested fruit should be
placed in suitable containers in the shade. All the
fruits do not mature at the same time as they are
harvested at 4-5 days interval. During the crop’s life
span, tomatoes can be harvested 7-11 times.
(c
—
(d
—
Chili and capsicum
Chili is harvested manually by hand picking, either as
a green fruit or red ripe fruit. The green fruit picking
continues for about two months at an interval of
10-12 days. There are five to six pickings for green
chilies and three to four for red ripe fruits. The red
ripe chili fruits should be dried for 5—7 days in bright
sunlight before being sent to the market or stored.
When there is a good demand for green chilies, one or
two pickings of the green fruit can be done even if the
crop grown is for red chilies. For vegetable purposes,
the chili crop should be harvested at fully grown green
stage and for drying purposes it must be harvested at
the red ripe stage. For pickle making, the chilies can
be picked at either the green or red ripe stage. The
number of harvesting depends on cultivar, season and
cultural practices. It can continue for three months
with proper cultural practices.
Brinjal
Brinjal fruits are harvested when they have developed a
marketable size, have a good colour, are immature and
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have an attractive bright glossy appearance with soft
seeds. The fruits are harvested with a stack at the joint
where they are attached to the branch. The frequency
of harvest depends upon the size of the fruit. Small size
fruits are harvested more frequently than the bigger
fruits. Fruits should be harvested in the morning to
avoid sun scalding.
Potato
Big size tubers are harvested at full physiological
maturity stage. The crop falls off when it is fully matured.
This is the sign of maturity of the tuber inside the soil.
Table 4.1: Maturity indices of solanaceous vegetables
il. Tomato Mature green: fruit firm and mature, colour changes from green to
light green
Pink: pink colour on the blossom end. At room temperature, fruits
will ripen in about three days.
Ripe: when the fruit is completely red but still firm, it should be used
immediately
2, Potato Collapse of the crop, size of the tuber, development of periderm,
starch content and specific gravity _
3) Brinjal Glossy skin, desirable size, tender and soft seed
Chili >, green, before they change from green to red
5 Bell Well developed, firm, shining and bright coloured (red, yellow, orange,
, pepper green, etc.)
Harvesting
The assembling of plants or its parts at a certain
stage for economic purposes is called harvesting. After
attaining proper maturity, the produce is harvested
for marketing. It involves detachment or separation
of the produce from the main plant at the right stage
of maturity, depending on the purpose for which it is
grown. Vegetables are delicate, hence, avoid mechanical
injuries. Bruises, splits, cuts, breakage and wounds
during harvest could become the path for pathogens
to enter and accumulation of dust, which affects the
appearance and leads to early decay. The persons
involved in harvesting must be efficiently trained and
skillful in handling the fresh produce.
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NoTEsS Harvesting management
Harvesting should be done
¢ during the cool hours of the day as low temperature
reduces physiological activities in plants.
¢ at the proper stage of maturity, otherwise it affects
acceptability and shelf life.
¢ by using proper methods to reduce losses and
damage to the produce as well as the plant.
¢ by an experienced, skilled person who can harvest
selectively (only the mature produce).
¢ by maintaining proper hygiene standards (clean
tools, baskets or containers).
Harvesting arrangement
¢ Inspect the field to identify the correct stage of
the crop.
¢ Remove obstructions in the field, if any, to facilitate
harvesting and avoid damages to the produce.
e Erect a temporary shade to stack the harvested
produce and to prevent it from scorching in the sun.
e Wash and clean the harvesting tools, collecting
baskets, etc.
e Use proper harvesting methods like fruit plucking
(brinjal, tomato,chili) or digging (potato).
¢ Harvesting containers should be used to collect and
transfer the produce into the shade directly.
Methods of harvesting
Harvesting can be done either manually or mechanically.
Careful harvesting and transporting practices are
essential to ensure that wound and bruise free good
quality produce reaches the market.
Manual harvesting
It is one of the most accepted and suitable methods
of vegetable harvesting. Selective harvesting by
well-trained and experienced people ensures that
harvesting is done at the right stage of maturity.
Tomatoes, brinjals and chilies must be picked with
a gentle twisting motion of the hand to separate the
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fruit from the plant. Manual harvesting includes hand Notes
picking, clipping, cutting with knives and digging.
Mechanical harvesting
It results in a significant reduction in management
and labour costs and can result in savings as high as
30-45%. The mechanical method involves the use of
machinery and specialised equipment made especially
for harvesting purpose. It is common in large scale
harvesting. It is a fast method and requires less labour.
Nowadays, in many countries automatic robotic
systems are used for harvesting high value crops like
tomatoes and capsicum in poly houses. This method is
not economical in small scale production.
Harvesting of solanaceous crops
Solanaceous vegetables can be efficiently harvested by
plucking with hand (except potato) and no specialised
tool is required. With maturity, a natural abscission
layer is formed, which enables easy plucking. The
presence of abscission zones between the stem and the
stalk of the fruit, such as tomato, brinjal and chili has
been observed to become prominent at maturity. That
is why the matured tomato fruits can be easily detached
from the plant with just a slight pressure.
A crop like potato is dug out with the help of a potato
digger or wooden plough. In large scale production, the
mechanised method can be followed. Tubers that are
dug out are collected and brought to the shade house.
Harvesting containers
The harvesting containers should be easy to handle for
workers to harvest the vegetables. Containers made of
material, such as paper, polyethylene film are relatively
cheap but they give little protection to the produce
against handling and transport damage. The fruits
with firm skins, like brinjal and chili are harvested and
collected in harvesting bags, which are later emptied
from the bottom into a field container instead of tipping
the bag. Plastic crates are most suitable for harvesting
tomatoes. For harvesting fresh fruits and vegetables,
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NoTEs bulk bins of 200-500 kg capacity are used. Such bins
are more useful than the field boxes, in terms of fruit
carried per unit volume and the protection of the product
in transit to the packing house. Pallet boxes have a
standard size of 1.2 x 1 metre with varying height. These
are generally used to carry harvested produce from the
field to the packing house or for handling produce in
the packing house.
Sacks or gunny bags are still commonly used for
crops, such as potatoes, onions, pumpkins, etc. Other
types of field harvest containers, such as plastic baskets,
buckets, picking baskets and plastic crates are used
for tomatoes, brinjal and chilies. For high-risk produce,
like sweet pepper, woven baskets and sacks are not
recommended because of the risk of contamination.
Vegetables should be harvested in plastic crates and
further handled in cardboard boxes or cartons in transit
to maintain better quality. These containers should be
smooth so that they do not damage the produce or harm
any person.
Fig.4.4: Harvesting container (Plastic crates)
Precaution during harvesting of solanaceous
vegetables
In all solanaceous vegetables, care should be taken to
prevent any injury because of faulty operations during
harvesting and handling. The hands of the harvesters
are the most important points of contact as they touch
the product. The injuries occurred during harvesting
can be reduced if
e the field containers do not possess any protruding
nails or staples or have rough edges.
¢ the worker wears cotton gloves, trims the fingernails,
does not wear jewellery, such as rings and bracelets
during harvest.
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care is taken while transferring products from one
container to another.
all impact areas are padded, wherever possible.
clean equipment and containers are used and sand
and all debris are removed from the containers.
overfilling of containers is avoided.
Practical Exercise
Identify the different maturity stages of tomato fruits.
Material required
Different samples of tomato fruit, plastic baskets, blade or knife
and writing material.
Procedure
IL.
De
Tomato fruits in different maturity stages procured from a
farmer’s field or the local market.
Compare the fruit samples with the colour chart and fruit
maturity stages given in images.
Visualise the fruit maturity stage.
Note down the following observations.
«vA Ln”
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1.
2.
Sn
4.
The attainment of the final stage of biological development
of a plant or plant part is known as
The examples of climacteric vegetables are
Vegetables that ripen on the plant itself and must be
harvested at the appropriate maturity stage are known
as__—s—s—CSC gets.
Vegetables should be harvested either in the or
hours.
B. Multiple choice questions
ile
The stage of maturity at which the produce is in the most
desirable form and is harvested as per the consumer’s
preference is called
(a) physiological maturity
(b) horticultural maturity
(c) ripening
(d) none of the above
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NorTes
Horticultural maturity in most of the vegetable crops occurs
(a) prior to the physiological maturity
(b) after the physiological maturity
(c) with physiological maturity
(d) both a and b
Tomato fruits for distant markets may be harvested
at
(a) green stage
(b) red stage
(c) ripe stage
(d) over ripe stage
Ripening is associated with a rapid increase in
(a) transpiration
(b) respiration
(c) evaporation
(d) pollination
The specific gravity of a fruit or vegetable is
(a) its weight in air divided by the weight in water.
(b) its weight in water divided by the weight in air.
(c) its weight in air multiplied by the weight in water.
(d) its weight in air plus weight in water.
. Subjective questions
il
Write short notes on
(a) Maturity indices
(b) Physiological maturity
(c) Horticultural maturity
(d) Climacteric and non-climacteric vegetables
Explain the different methods of determination of maturity
in solanaceous vegetables.
Describe the harvesting process of solanaceous vegetable
crops.
. Match the columns
A B
Maturity indices (a) Assembling of plants or
parts at a certain stage
Colour of the produce (b) Indicate the stage
of maturity
Abscission layer (c) Important visual
maturity index
Acid content (d) Eases plucking of fruits
Harvesting (e) Falls with maturity
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SEssION 2: POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF
SOLANACEOUS CROPS
Post-harvest Handling
Post-harvest handling involves careful movement of
harvested commodities from the time of harvest to just
before meal preparation. Its objective is to reduce losses
at the least possible cost. It includes precautions, care
and treatment of harvested produce to reduce damage
loss and to enhance its appearance, quality and
storability. This includes pre-cooling, cleaning, treating,
sorting, grading, packing, transport, etc.
Causes of post-harvest losses
Improper method of harvesting and carelessness
Mechanical injuries to the produce
Presence of infected and decayed produce in the lot
Improper curing (roots, tubers and bulbs)
Improper packing
Improper storage conditions
Sprouting inpotatoes
Bruising in transit
Objectives of post-harvest technology
To keep the produce in more acceptable conditions.
To maintain the appearance and flavour of the
harvested produce.
To protect food safety and nutritive value.
To reduce losses after harvesting up to consumption.
To make them available in off season.
Post-harvest process
Collection of harvested produce
Pre-cooling
Sorting
Cleaning and disinfection
Drying
Grading
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¢ Other treatments
e Packing
¢ Storage
¢ Transport
Since vegetables are perishable, careful and proper
handling of the produce during all the above processes
is important.
Collection of harvested produce
Horticultural produce is delicate as the water content
is more in them. A slight bruising or pressure to it
post-harvest may show up as blemishes, patches or
injuries. Care should be taken during the collection of
the harvested produce.
Pre-sorting
It is the process in which injured, warted, diseased, bird
pecked, decayed, misshapen produce is separated. This
minimises further handling expenses as the lot becomes
free of undesirable produce.
Pre-cooling
It is a treatment given to the harvested
produce to remove the field heat. It reduces
respiration rate, enzymatic activity,
ethylene production rate, water loss and
Room microbial spoilage.
cooling
Methods of pre-cooling
Hydro cooling is when the harvested
produce is either showered or submerged
in running cold water. It is mostly practised
on leafy vegetables. During hydro cooling,
Ice rece sed
cooling Bine water temperature should be maintained
at 12-15°C.
Fig. 4.5:Methods of pre-cooling Room cooling is when in an insulated and
refrigerated room, cool air is circulated by
a convection.
Forced air cooling is when the produce is kept in a
refrigerated room and cold air is circulated with the
help of powerful fans.
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Ice cooling is when harvested produce is pre-cooled with NoTES
crushed ice. Waterproof packages are used to wrap the
produce.
Vacuum cooling is when heat from the harvested
produce is removed at low atmospheric pressure in
a chamber.
Trimming, washing and cleaning
The harvest must be washed to remove the soil and dust
from the produce. Decayed or damaged portions should
be trimmed off. A solution of chlorine @ 100-150ppm can
be used for washing the harvested produce. Washing
removes inoculums from the surface of the produce,
gives a fresh appearance and cleans any foreign smell
or taste from the surface.
Drying
This step is important after washing or pre-cooling the
produce to bring the moisture to a desirable level in the
produce. Drying should be done in partial shade.
Waxing is done on the surface of the harvested
produce to
¢ prevent water loss during handling and marketing,
¢ protect against bruising and scars,
* seal openings against any unwanted entry, and
¢ extend shelf life and maintain quality.
Sorting
It is the process of separating the damaged, diseased
and insect pest affected vegetables that are not suitable
for either the market or storage. It is done by hand after
the vegetable produce is harvested.
Grading
It is the categorisation of the produce according to size,
shape and colour into different uniform lots. It can be
done manually or by grading lines. Grading according
to size of round produce can be done by sizing rings.
Better grade produce fetches a better price in the market.
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NoTES Tomato fruits are graded into four groups based on its
size that is, Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial.
Similarly, large, medium and small tubers are graded
as per their size. Low grade produce can be utilised
for making value added products like pickle, ketchup,
sauce, etc.
Packaging
It is the process of preparing commodities for
transportation, distribution, storage, retailing and
presenting to the consumer in the most attractive form.
Packaging ensures delivery of the produce to the end
user in good condition at the minimum cost.
Packaging must be appropriate to protect the produce
during handling and transport. The selection of right
packing material is important. It should be selected
according to the produce, means of transport, distance
to the market or period of storage. Bamboo baskets
and jute sacks are commonly used for transporting to
local markets.
Packages can be classified as follows:
¢ Flexible sacks and bags that are made of plastic, jute,
canvas, wire and net are used for potatoes, chilies
and brinjals.
¢ Wooden crates are generally used for tomatoes
and pepper.
¢ CFB boxes (cardboard) are used for tomatoes.
e Plastic crates are used for tomatoes, chilies, brinjals,
potatoes, etc.
¢ Different types of baskets made of bamboo, plastic
and even leaves woven together can be used.
¢ Pallet boxes and shipping containers are used for
exporting the produce.
Transportation
Transporting the produce to the market is the
next step to packaging. At present, vegetables are
transported in bulk in rickshaws, carts, jeeps, rail
and trucks. This results in severe loss and damage
during transportation. However, now producers are
paying attention to this and even refrigerated vans are
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being used for transporting fresh vegetable produce. NoTES
Transportation during cool hours, use of refrigerated
vans or cool-chain vehicles for long distance, a
well-ventilated vehicle for nearby markets, proper
stacking of baskets or racks are certain factors that
can minimise transit damage. The government is
providing support to establish a cool chain facility for
the horticultural produce.
Causes of Impairing Quality of Produce
in Transit
¢ Bruising, vibration caused by loose packing of
vegetables.
¢ Careless loading and unloading of produce.
¢ High transit temperatures (if not cooled immediately).
¢ Poor or no packaging.
Storage
This is a step that comes after harvesting. It is necessary
to store the produce till it reaches the market. Hence, it
is an important activity that helps to prevent the produce
from spoiling and enhances its shelf life. Temperature
and relative humidity of the storage house are the main
factors that affect respiration and transpiration of the
stored produce. If temperature and relative humidity are
not maintained, it can cause spoilage of the produce.
Innovative technologies that can make it possible to
achieve optimal environment in the insulated storage
areas are now available.
Objectives of storage
1. To meet the demand of fresh vegetables throughout
the year.
2. To avoid glut season and maintain the price during
the peak season.
oe
To provide planting material when needed.
4. To slow the biological activity of the produce by
maintaining a low temperature.
To protect moisture content of the produce.
6. To protect the produce from micro-organisms.
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NoTEs Storage methods
There are two kinds of storage methods.
In uncontrolled condition
e Sand or coir method is used to store potatoes for
a long time. In this method, the produce is covered
with sand and coconut fibre (coir).
e Pits are used to store potatoes. In this method, pits
or trenches are dug at the boundaries of the field
where the crop has been cultivated. Generally,
pits are sited at the uppermost point of the field,
particularly in areas of high rainfall. Straw or other
organic material is used to line the pits or trenches,
packed with the crop produce being stored, and then
topped with a layer of organic material followed by a
layer of soil. Straws are used to make holes on top
for ventilation. Lack of ventilation could cause the
crop to rot.
e Evaporative cooling should be ensured. The
degree of cooling depends on the RH of the air and
the efficiency of the evaporating surface. If the
surrounding air contains low RH and is humidified
to around 100% RH, then a big reduction in
temperature will be achieved.
e For night ventilation, a fan is installed in the
store room, which switches on when the external
temperature at night becomes lower than the internal
temperature. It switches off when the temperatures
equalise. The fan is monitored by a thermostat, which
continuously equalises the outside air temperature
with the internal storage temperature.
In controlled condition
Modified atmosphere storage is commonly used for
fruits and tomatoes. These types of storages are airtight
chambers with wall, roof and floor. In this method, the
proportion of atmospheric gases inside the storage is
altered by reducing oxygen and increasing CO, level.
Depending upon the variety and kind of produce, the
proportion of O,, CO, and nitrogen is maintained.
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¢ In forced air ventilation, air flowing capillaries are
provided under the perforated floor of the store so
that the air can be forced through the stored produce.
Refrigeration can be defined as a technique of
extracting heat from a substance under controlled
conditions. It includes decreasing and maintaining
the temperature below the ambient temperature.
Such storage is provided with exhaust facilities
to release the heat generated by the produce. It is
essential to control the temperature and relative
humidity conditions within the refrigerated storage
surroundings, according to the crop or variety.
Cold chain or cool chain is a temperature-controlled
facility of transportation from the field to the market
or storage. In this, all practices of production,
storage and supply are performed under refrigerated
situations. Cold chain ensures preservation and
extended shelf life of the produce.
Table 4.2: Recommended storage temperature and relative humidity
for solanaceous vegetables
1. Tomato (Ripe) _7.0-10 85-90
2. Tomato (Green) 12-20 88-90
eh. Brinjal (Me 90
4. Pepper eto 90-95
5), Potato 5-10 93
4-7 days
1-3 weeks
1 week
2-3 weeks
2-5 months
Source: FAO 1989. Prevention of post-harvest food losses of fruits, vegetables and root crops training
manual. Training;17(2). Rome, Italy.
Fig.4.6: Packing in the field to transport to storage
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Post-harvest Handling of Tomato
Tomato fruits should be cooled soon after
harvest and stored in the appropriate
temperature (7-20°C). The produce may
be stored temporarily if there is a wait to
transport it to the market. To maintain
quality before sale and consumption, it
Fig.4.7: Corrugated cardboard boxes myst be stored in a cool storeroom. The life
of vegetables is greatly extended by maintaining low
temperatures in the storage area. Under evaporative
cool storage, tomatoes are stored at low temperature.
In India, generally tomatoes are not commercially
stored in cold storage. The storage life of tomatoes can
be enhanced by pre-cooling the produce immediately
after harvest and prior to storage and transportation.
Tomato fruits in the mature green stage can be stored
successfully at 12°-13°C in polythene bags of 100 gauze
thickness for 4-5 weeks. The storage life of tomatoes
can be increased by keeping them in evaporative cool
storage (zero energy cool chambers). It is found that
the shelf life of tomatoes in the breaker stage, stored in
zero energy cool chambers during the summer,can be
extended by 4—5 days. The cool chamber can be used
effectively for longer duration storage of fruits and to
reduce weight loss significantly.
Short duration storage of fruits and vegetables can
be effectively done by using a zero energy cool chamber.
It reduces the storage temperature and also increases
the RH of the storage that is responsible for maintaining
the freshness of the produce.
Grading
Tomato is graded for specialised city markets based
on the size of the fruits. This can be categorised in
two groups. The first superior group comprises fully
developed fruits,uniform in size and colour. The second
group comprises fruits in variable size and colour.
Grading is essential for higher returns but is not common
in the local markets. The Bureau of Indian Standards
suggested four grades for tomatoes, Super A, Super,
Fancy and Commercial. The fruits are packed in plastic
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crates, corrugated fibre boxes, wooden field boxes or NoTES
cardboard boxes and transported to nearby markets.
Post-harvest handling of chili
Immediately after harvesting green chilies and
capsicum, pre-cooling is essential. Chilies are stored and
transported at 7.5°C—8°C temperature with 90-95 RH. If
they are properly cooled and stored, their shelf-life can
be extended by 14-21 days. In case of dry chilies, pods
must be dried properly after cleaning them properly of
plant parts and other foreign material. Later, they can
be packed in clean or dirt free, dry gunny bags and
stored in cold dry places to protect them from moisture.
Care should be taken to stack the bags 50-60 cm away
from the wall. The stored product should preferably be
exposed to sun periodically.
Dry chili can be stored better in a kraft packet
27°C and 65% relative humidity. For chili powder, a
polythene bag is more effective than a glass container.
The colour and pungency of chilies and colour, in
the case of paprika, are maximally preserved during
the storage. Preference is given to mechanically dried
(dehydrated) capsicums with around 10% moisture.
Overdried capsicum suffer from loss of colour and those
with higher moisture level are susceptible to infection
and bleaching of colours during storage.
Grading
In India, chilies are chiefly graded by farmers on the
basis of colour and size, before they are sent to the
market. Injured, discoloured and underdeveloped pods
are removed depending on the market demand. The
other factors important in grading chilies are:
(a) Seed and fruit (pod) ratio,
(b) Seed size and hardness,
(c) Thickness of the pod skin, and
(d) Pungency.
In the market, there are two types of grades: special
and standard. The fruits are packed in plastic crates,
corrugated fibre boxes, wooden field boxes and gunny
bags and transported to nearby markets.
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Notes
Post-harvest handling of brinjal
The freshly harvested fruits, free from injury, disease
and insect blemishes are cleaned properly by washing
them under a sprinkler, wrapped and arranged in
suitable plastic trays or cartons.
Grading
The fruits are graded according to their size and colour.
The Bureau of Indian Standards has suggested three
grades for brinjal— super, fancy and commercial.
Demonstrate the harvesting and packaging of tomatoes
Material required
Tomato fruits, packaging material and writing material.
Procedure
1. Select a tomato crop that is at the physiological
maturity stage.
2. Generally, depending on the variety, tomato fruits are ready
for harvesting 60-90 days after transplanting.
Collect the harvested fruits in the shade.
Clean and grade the harvested fruits.
Oe soe
for transport.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
Pick ripe fruits carefully and place them in buckets.
Pack the harvested fruits in containers (plastic crate)
1. The process that removes the field heat of harvested
vegetables is known as
2. Chlorine solution @ ppm can be used to wash
harvested produce.
3. A temperature-controlled transportation facility from the
field to the market is called
4. The process that makes delivery of the produce to the
end user in good condition at a minimum cost is known
as.
B. Multiple choice questions
1. The process of categorisation of the produce according
to size, shape and colour into different uniform
lots is called
(a) packing
(b) sorting
(c) grading
(d) None of the above
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Storage temperature for ripe tomatoes is AC.
(a) 3-5
(b) 7-10
(c) 12-15
(d) 15-20
Curing is an effective post-harvest operation in
fruit or crop.
(a) brinjal
(b) tomato
(c) tuber
(d) chili
The mixture of atmospheric gases inside the storage is
altered in
(a) evaporative storage
(b) pit storage
(c) modified atmospheric storage
(d) refrigerated storage
Brinjal grades suggested by the Bureau of Indian
Standards is (are) .
(a) super
(b) fancy
(c) commercial
(d) All of the above
C. Subjective questions
1.
De
3.
4.
5.
List the different harvesting stages of tomato.
Write about grading of tomatoes and chilies.
Describe in detail the different causes of post-harvest
losses in vegetables.
Write a note on modified atmospheric storage.
How are pit storages prepared?
D. Match the columns
se ee) Te
A B
Zero energy cooling (a) Loose packing
Refrigeration (b) Protection of moisture content
Trimming (c) Cutting decayed part
Waxing (d) Extracting heat under
controlled condition
Bruising (e) Effectively used for short
duration storage
HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT IN SOLANACEOUS CROPS
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171602CHOS
INTRODUCTION
Of the two words in farm management, farm literally
means a piece of land where crops and other enterprises
are taken up under a common management and
has specific boundaries, and management means
coordinating and _ effectively utilising available
resources such as material, machinery, manpower,
money, methods and markets (the 6Ms principle).
In other words, farm management is the art of
managing a farm successfully, as considered on a
scale of profitability. Farm management has its own
importance in commercial as well as in subsistence
type of agriculture all around the world. This unit will
help you understand the basics of farm management
and the tasks of a farm manager
Tasks of a Farm Manager
An efficient farm manager must be concerned with
the costs and returns of the agricultural production
system. The farm manager must be able to recognise
the efficient use of limited generative resources in farm
production to meet aims and maximise profit. The farm
manager must also be able to respond to financial
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setbacks that happen from both within and outside
the farm.
Vegetable Farm
Growing commercial vegetables or production of quality
vegetable crop seeds along with raising nurseries for
commercial purposes are what constitute a vegetable
farm. Commercial vegetable production is an important
constituent of a farm. Producing fresh vegetables means
marketing them immediately after harvest due to their
perishable nature. However,this gives easy and fast
farm income.
Specialised techniques, and all seed norms and
regulations as per the Seed Act, 1960, need to be
followed for quality seed production of vegetable crops.
The production of certified seeds of notified varieties
can improve the farm income as these can be sold to
farmers, government agencies, etc. A hi-tech nursery
to raise vegetables under protected structures can
also bring good remuneration to the farm. Thus, all
these aspects should be incorporated in any new farm
establishment.
Session 1: Farm MANAGEMENT AND SELECTION
CRITERIA OF VEGETABLE CROPS
For a profitable farm, it is important to consider the
following farm resources.
e Land management is of utmost importance in the
production process. Agronomists and soil scientists
check the land for intensity of land use, fertility of
soil, levelling and bunding, drainage and irrigation,
weed management, etc.
e Labour management refers to the total amount of
industrious work per man per unit time. The higher
the labour efficiency, the greater are the returns
from farming. Farm labour can be classified into four
categories:
(i) Farm manager’s labour,
(ii) Farm family’s labour,
(iii) Permanently hired labour, and
(iv) Casual hired labour.
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NoTES The first three categories constitute the permanent
labour force available on the farm. This is a fixed resource
due to general lack of mobility. The fourth category is a
variable input and can be hired when needed.
Financial management
Judicious management of finances of a farm business is
important to increase the income of the farm. This part
of the farm management pertains to the acquisition and
use of capital.
Machinery management
Mechanisation of select farm operations is key to the
successful implementation of a farming system based
on intensive use of yield increasing technology and
multiple cropping. Mechanisation remarkably increases
output and labour productivity in a farm.
Building management
With the advancement of production technology, the
importance of buildings has increased because the
number of implements, machines, processing, storage,
etc., has increased. Like with the other resources,
marginal investments made on farm buildings will bring
the highest returns to the farm.
Different Farm Buildings or Structures
e Farm office belongs to the farm manager or farmer.
It should be located at the centre of the farm for
proper supervision. The office must be connected to
the main road and located on high ground for proper
drainage. The source of water supply and electricity
should be provided accordingly.
e Farm implements and vehicle shed should be
near the office building. Enough space should be
provided for both the implements and the tractors
and trolleys.
e Storehouse is used to keep fertilisers and related
sources at an appropriate and safe place.
e Pack house is a space for packing any produce.
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e Threshing floor is a safe and protected area where
threshing operations can be done after harvesting.
¢ Processing unit is also an important structure for
cleaning and grading of seeds. Many vegetable seeds
may require to be graded in uniform size and shape.
e Structure for storage of farm produce is essential
as, after grading and packing of the produce, the
produce has to be stored till it is sold.
e Nursery raising structures should have polytunnels
or polyhouses or nethouses or lath houses or cold
frames, etc. These structures can be constructed as
per the requirement and investment capability.
Crop Planning
Selection of vegetable crops
Vegetable crops are selected on the basis of soil and
climate of the area. Accordingly, vegetables are divided
into three groups:
e Summer or spring summer season vegetable
crops are brinjal, muskmelon, watermelon, long
melon, snap melon, round melon, bottle gourd, bitter
gourd, snake gourd, ash gourd, ridge gourd, sponge
gourd, pumpkin, summer squash, winter squash,
cucumber, okra, tomato, chili, cowpea, cluster bean,
amaranths, Indian spinach, pointed gourd, etc.
e Rainy season vegetable crops are okra, brinjal,
chili, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, snake gourd, ash
gourd, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, pointed gourd, ivy
gourd, cow pea, cluster bean, etc.
¢ Winter or autumn winter season vegetable crops
are cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, radish, carrot,
turnip, beet, spinach, onion, garlic, peas, fenugreek,
lettuce, potato, etc.
Cropping System
This refers to cropping pattern interactions on a
farm with farm resources, other farm activities
and production techniques. The yearly sequence,
arrangement of a crop in streaks and uncultivated
land in a given area is called cropping pattern.
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Notes Land resource in India is very limited. It is 0.12
ha per capita, which will further diminish by the
turn of this century due to the population increase
and fragmentation of land holding, resulting in
lower production.
Moreover,a mere 3% of our total arable land is,
at present, under vegetable cultivation. Realising the
huge gap between demand and supply of vegetables,
there is a suggestion to increase more area under
vegetable cultivation, but it is difficult to get such
horizontal expansion in vegetable cultivation in
this situation. The total production per unit area
can be increased by increasing the yield per unit
area by using high yielding varieties, adequate and
scientific crop management practices and increasing
cropping intensities.
The following methods are recommended to increase
cropping intensity.
¢ Crop rotation is a system of growing different crops
in a regular sequence on the same land repeatedly
for a period of two, three or more years. Here, the
cropping sequence cycle takes more than one year
to complete.
e Succession cropping is when, in a year, two or
more crops are grown in succession on the same
land. This system is generally followed in most
market-oriented farms, where the aim is to keep the
high-priced land occupied with cash crop for most
part of the year.
¢ Relay cropping system is when the growing span of
two crops overlap for a short period of time. In this
system, the succeeding crop is sown on the same
piece of land before the harvesting of the preceding
crop in the same year.
e In intercropping, two or more crops are grown
together or simultaneously in alternate rows or on
the same land in the same season. The crops may
or may not be sown or planted and harvested at the
same time. It is mainly aimed at increasing the yield
of the companion crop without reducing the yield of
the main crop.
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Chapter -5.indd 95
When these cropping sequences are practiced in a
farm in an orderly manner for two, three or more years,
the cropping system is called crop rotation.
Succession cropping
1.
10.
11,
12.
Lee
LA
Vegetable cowpea (June to October); mid-season
cauliflower (October to January); onion (January
to May).
Pumpkin (October to February); okra (February to
May); brinjal (May to October).
Potato (October to January); onion (January to
May); okra (May to October).
Early radish (August to October); French bean
(November to February); bitter gourd (February to
June); amaranthus (June to August).
Cabbage (August to November); tomato (November
to February); ridge gourd (February to June); cowpea
or rice bean for green manure (June to July).
Early cauliflower (July to October); brinjal (October
to March); amaranthus (March to June).
Early tomato (August to December); onion (December
to May); green manure crop (June to July).
Brinjal (July to November); pea (November to
February); cucumber (March to July).
Sweet pepper (November to February); taro (February
to July); bitter gourd (July to November).
Chili (October to April); okra (April to August);
spinach (August to October).
Late tomato (late December to April); okra (April to
August); hyacinth bean (August to December).
Radish (October to December); watermelon
(December to April); brinjal (April to October).
Elephant foot yam (March to October); pumpkin
(October to February).
Bottle gourd (October to February); okra (February
to July); Radish (July to October).
Note: To make such multiple cropping successful,
cucurbit seeds should be raised in polyethylene packets.
Before starting them during winter, the seedlings should
be
raised under a polyethylene house or shed to avoid
cold injury. Such deviation from the normal growing
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season is profitable from the point of view of marketing
the produce. In the plains of West Bengal, good quality
fruiting in tomato can be extended up to April if planted
in late December (refer to point no.11).
Relay cropping
1. Potato and pumpkin: potato is harvested in March
and pumpkin seeds are sown in the last week of
January. After harvesting potato,pumpkin is
continued up to June.
2. Brinjal and ridge gourd or bitter gourd or
watermelon: brinjal is grown between September
and February. Seedlings of cucurbit grown in
polyethylene packets are to be planted in December
and continued up to April.
3. Bitter gourd and okra: bitter gourd is grown
during October to February. Pre-germinated seeds
of okra are to be sown in January and continued
up to May.
4. Bottle gourd or summer squash and bush type
vegetable cowpea: cucurbits are grown during
January to May following the ridge and furrow
method. Cowpea seeds are sown in the beds between
two furrows in April and continued up to July.
5. Cabbage and watermelon/cucumber: cabbage
is grown from late October to the first week of
February. Cucurbit is started with the seedlings in
polyethylene packets from December. Then they are
planted and continued up to April.
Intercropping
1. Cabbage + radish: cabbage is the main crop. The
companion crop radish is of short duration and
harvested early.
2. Tomato + radish + lettuce: tomato is the main crop
and is to be grown at a higher spacing of 75-90 cm of
the companion crops. Radish is harvested 50 days
and lettuce 80-85 days after sowing. So, enough
space is left after harvesting the companion crops
to continue tomato successfully up to 150 days
after planting. In this intercropping, tomato must
be staked and trained.
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3. Cucumber + cabbage or cauliflower: cucumber is
the main crop and is sown in October with a view
to capitalise on the advantage of early harvest in
spring. Cabbage or cauliflowers are grown in the
interspaces successfully for the initial 80-day period.
4. Carrot + peas: carrot, the main crop grows slowly
for the initial 45 days. Early pea varieties like
Arkel from which the first picking of pods can be
done 55-60 days after sowing, can successfully
be grown in between for a period of 85 days, at
the time of the last harvesting of peas. The plants
should be uprooted and earthling up of carrot done
simultaneously. Carrot is continued for 130-135
days after sowing.
5. Tomatotspinach: spinach can be grown successfully
in between tomato for a duration of 75 to 80 days.
Harvesting of spinach by uprooting the entire plant
starts 35 days after sowing.
6. Pointed gourd+spinach or radish or early
cauliflower: the vine or root cutting of the main
crop, pointed gourd, is planted in October, on the
side of a raised bed of 2.5 to 3 m width. The initial
growth of the regenerated vine is slow due to the
comparatively low temperature at this time. A short
duration crop (75 to 80 days) can be grown profitably
as a companion crop in the beds. Pointed gourd
is continued up to August-September. In case of
two successive crops, ratooning is done in October
enabling the companion crop to grow again.
Principles for Arranging the Cropping Sequence
The economic effect of crop rotation, succession
cropping and relay cropping depends on the set
of crops. However, there should be a definite plan
in arranging the cropping sequence based on the
following principles.
1. Repetition of the crops that have common diseases
and pests should be avoided. For example,
solanaceous crops should be avoided in the rotation
when there is a problem of fusarium wilt and
bacterial wilt in tomato and brinjal. Many serious
diseases and pests can be controlled by scientific
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NoTEs crop rotation. For example, club root of cabbage and
other crucifers caused by the fungus Plasmodiophora
brassicae can be effectively controlled by keeping
the land free from cruciferous crop for a period of at
least three years.
2. Generally, the relation of individual crops to their
predecessors must be taken into consideration.
Vegetable crops of different families grow well after
the growth of a majority of the crops. A number
of vegetable crops, like onion, spinach, tomato,
etc., are good forerunners for the other crops if
compatibility conditions are fulfilled.
3. Raise deep-rooted crops after the shallow-rooted
crops. Deep-rooted vegetable crops, like pumpkin,
tomato, peas, beans, carrots, etc., are able to use
nutrients extracted from the deep layers of the soil.
So these crops should be rotated with crops having
shallow roots on the same piece of land. Shallow-
rooted crops are onion, leafy greens, lettuce,
cucumber, etc.
4. Heavy feeding crops, like cabbage, cauliflower,
potato, brinjal, etc., that have high nutrient
requirement should be followed by lowfeeding crops
like okra, cucumber, lettuce, pumpkin, etc., that
have a comparatively low nutrient requirement.
5. Crops that efficiently utilise the organic manure
residues should be grown after the crop that
does not utilise them fully. For that matter,
immediately after the addition of organic matter
to the soil, cucumber, pumpkin, summer squash,
cabbage, leek, etc., should be grown. This should
be followed by root crops that can utilise the
organic residues fully.
6. Leguminous vegetable crops should be included
in the cropping sequence. This not only upgrades
the protein status of the farm produce but also
enhances soil fertility.
7. Green manure crops should be accommodated in
the rotation to increase the organic matter status
in the soil.
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8.
Crop rotation without applying fertilisers maintains
organic matter in the soil but does not maintain high
productivity levels. A combination of crop rotation
and judicious fertiliser application produces the
highest yields and maintains the highest soil organic
matter levels.
Important considerations for intercropping
1.
2:
Crop compatibility in the mixed stand.
Growth behaviour of the crops and efficient use of
light by the crops in mixed stand.
Time of sowing or planting of the crops.
Space required by each crop at various stages
of growth.
Assured supply of water and nutrients.
Assured management practices.
Advantages of intercropping
1.
6.
High return from per unit land area. The main
objective of inter cropping is to increase the yield of
the component crop without reducing the yield of
the main crop.
. The total yield from the same area under intercropping
is much higher than the sole crop yield.
Better use of growth resources.
Better control of pests, diseases and weeds.
Effective guard against market risks as different
crops are harvested from the same land.
Economy of space.
Financial Management
Economics of vegetable production
Financial management is concerned with productivity,
that is, use of and income from production resources.
Specifically stated, the production economics includes,
combination of farm enterprises, method of production,
size of the farms, returns to scale, leasing, production
possibilities, farming efficiency, use of credit and capital,
risk and uncertainty, which affects decision making.
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Notes Cost of production
The cost refers to the total amount of funds used in
production. The nature of production and the prices
thus determine the cost structure. Cost of production
involves both cash cost items and non-cash items. Cash
costs are when resources, such as fertilisers, fuel oil,
casual labour, etc., are purchased and used immediately
in the production process. Non-cash costs consist of
depreciation of farm implements, equipment, buildings,
etc., and payments made to the farmer themselves or
family labour, management and owned capital.
Categories of cost
Several kinds of costs are involved in even the simplest
production process but the two major categories of costs
are fixed costs and variable costs.
1. Fixed costs are those that do not change with the
amount of output and are incurred even when there
is no production. Fixed cash costs include land
taxes, interests, insurance premiums, annually
hired labour, permanent labour, electricity charges,
etc. Non-cash fixed costs include depreciation
on buildings, machinery, interest on capital
investments, cost of family labour and cost
of management.
2. Variable costs are the cost of using variable inputs.
They vary with the level of production. The higher
the production the more will be the variable costs.
It includes items, such as seeds, fertilisers, casual
labour, insecticides, fuel consumption, etc.
3. Total costs is the sum total of fixed costs plus
variable costs. Total costs are required for
computing net revenue. Net revenue is equal to
total revenue less total costs. During the planning
period, all inputs are variable.
Farm Record Keeping
It is the art and science of recording various farm details
and business dealings in a regular and systematic
manner so that their nature, extent and financial effects
can be readily ascertained at any time of the year.
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Advantages of farm records and accounts
1.
Means to higher income: to obtain higher income
farmers must have exact knowledge about the
present, potential gross income and operating cost.
. Basis for diagnosis and planning: diagnosis of
management problems is the pre-requisite of sound
planning. Data and accounts provide the necessary
information needed for such a diagnosis. It is alsoa
way to improve the risk bearing ability of a farmer.
. Basis for credit acquisition and management:
properly kept records and accounts can demonstrate
and authenticate the production and income
potential and credit worthiness of the farmer.
. Guide to better home management: records
and accounts provide information on the farm
household economy. This is particularly important
in Indian conditions where the farm and home
management are so closely integrated. It is the
basis of research conducted in agricultural and
production economics.
. Basis for government policies: various state and
central government policies, such as land policies,
price policies and crop insurance, etc., need a
farmer’s feedback for their more practical viability.
That is when these records and accounts are helpful
in obtaining the correct data for examining and
developing sound policies.
Principles of Book Keeping or Accounting
There are two systems of farm accountancy— double
entry system, and single entry system.
Double entry system is a method of recording each
transaction in the account books in its two-fold aspects.
It means two entries are made for each transaction in
the same set of books, one as a debit entry and the
other as a credit entry.
The theory of double entry is that every business
transaction involves two parties— one for receiving
the goods or services and the other for giving them.
Therefore, every transaction is entered at two places,
for credit and for debit.
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NoTEs Advantages of double entry system
1. The system provides for complete personal and
impersonal records, which include assets, liabilities,
gains or losses. Thus, the nature and value of the
possessions can be ascertained.
2. It furnishes ways and means for checking
arithmetical accuracy because two entries are made
for each transaction.
3. The system provides’ detailed information
regarding the business. Classified records of all
transactions will show combined overall results
of a given policy.
4. The system provides for automatic checks to
prevent mistakes.
5. It affords an easy and ready reference to details
of accounts.
Single entry system is a system, which ignores the
double effect of transactions. Only personal accounts
of debtors and creditors are kept, and impersonal
accounts are ignored altogether. It is, therefore, relatively
imperfect. Its results are less reliable, and its accuracy
cannot be tested by means of a trial balance, which is
possible under the double entry system alone.
Types of farm records
The farm record system has three parts: physical farm
records, financial farm records and supplementary
farm records.
Physical farm records are related to the physical
aspects of the operation of a farm business. The records
include:
(i) Map of the farm, soil and contour, etc.
(ii) Preparation of charts on physical efficiency
(iii) Records on utilisation of land
(iv) Records on crop production and disposal
(v) Daily work record diary, labour records
(vi) Machinery use records
(vii) Stock/register, etc.
(viii) Casual and hired labour records
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Financial farm records are mainly related to the
financial aspects of the operation of a farm business.
The records include:
(i) Farm inventory
(ii) Farm cash accounts or farm financial accounts
(iii) Classified farm cash accounts and annual farm
business analysis
(iv) Balance sheet for net worth statement
Supplementary farm records include
(i) Capital assets sale register
(ii) Cash sales register
(iii) Credit sale or purchase register
(iv) Wage register
(v) Funds borrowed or repayment register
(vi) Farm expenses register.
(vii) Non-farm income record
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Demonstrate different cropping patterns of vegetable crops
Material required
Writing material, practical file
Procedure
1. Visit a field where vegetable cropping pattern is followed, such as the Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Agricultural Institute or a farmer’s field.
2. Differentiate between crop rotation, relay cropping, inter cropping and
succession cropping with suitable examples.
3. Note the following observations in the Table given below.
NS
4. For each cropping pattern write two examples based on tuber crops.
5. Discuss advantages of vegetable cropping pattern.
Activity 2
Work out benefit cost ratio for any one tuber crop
Material required
Writing material
Procedure
1. Decide on a potato crop to work out benefit: cost ratio.
2. Collect the primary data of expenditure to raise a particular crop.
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3. Place the data in Table 1 to find out the variable cost and fixed cost.
4. Calculate benefit: cost ratio with the help of the given formula and Table 2.
5. Compare the benefit: cost ratio of a particular crop with the group.
Table 1: Variable cost and total cost of cultivation of ...................405 (crop name)
Table 2: Economics of tuber crop.........-..-.. production
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Costs involved in production process are and
2. A system of entry that ignores the double effect of
transactions is called
3. A method of recording each transaction in the account
books in its two-fold aspects is known as
4. A type of unit that is an important structure at a farm
for cleaning and grading of vegetable seeds is called
5. After grading, packing of the produce, the
structures are essential until selling.
B. Multiple choice questions
1. Which of these is a winter or autumn winter
seasonal vegetable?
(a) Melons (b) Carrot
(c) Squash (d) Gourds
2. Which of these vegetables grows in the summer season?
(a) Gourds (b) Fenugreek
(c) Carrot (d) Cabbage
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3. Growing different crops in a sequenced season on the NoTEs
same land is called .
(a) multi cropping (b) crop rotation
(c) mixed farming (d) sequence cropping
4. The succeeding crop sown/planted before the preceding
crop is ready for harvest is called
(a) relay cropping (b) crop rotation
(c) intercropping (d) succession cropping
5. Anexample of supplementary farm record is
(a) farm inventory (b) cash sale register
(c) farm cash accounts (d) All of these
C. Subjective questions
1. Define farm management. Describe the different farm
resources.
2. What is a vegetable farm? Describe the farm buildings.
3. Write short notes on
(a) Succession cropping
(b) Relay cropping
(c) Intercropping
(d) Crop rotation
4. Discuss the double entry system and its importance.
D. Match the columns
A B
1. Wage register a. Soil map
2. Fix coast b. Farm inventory
3. Variable cost c. Supplementary farm
records
4. Financial farm records d. Land taxes
5. Physical farm records e. Pesticides
Session 2: Basic MARKET INFORMATION
Concept of Market Information
Market information system is also known as market
intelligence system (MIS). This system is generally
used to collect, analyse and disseminate information
regarding demand and supply of any agricultural
commodity keeping fluctuating prices in mind, and
other needful information. Basic market information
plays a vital role in agri-horti industries and floral
supply chain. To get a better price in the market it
is essential for farmers and traders to have market
information regarding the demand and supply of
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any commodity so that they get a good price for their
produce. There are some sources that provide this
basic market information.
Importance of Market Information
All the sectors whether run individually or by a group,
depend on market information to work out their
marketing needs.
1. Farmers uses market information for improving
their decision-making powers to decide when,
where and through whom produce should be sold
and bought.
2. Middleman uses market information to plan the
purchase, storage and sale of commodities. This
information helps the middleman decide whether to
sell the commodities in the market immediately or
to stock it for some time before making a sale.
3. Government uses market information to formulate
agricultural policies related to import-export
regulations and administered prices. It also helps
the government to make decisions related to
support price.
4. General economy the regulation of price of
agricultural products for the development of
a competitive market helps in the growth of
the economy.
Collection and Dissemination of Market
Information
The collection and dissemination source of market
information are as given below.
e State Agriculture Marketing Department
¢ State Agriculture Marketing Board
e Fund Department
e Directorate of Economics and Statistics
¢ Personal contact
¢ Post and telephones
¢ Newspaper
e Magazines
¢ Government agencies or experts
¢ Price bulletins
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Agencies Involved in Agricultural Marketing NoTEs
1. National Agriculture Cooperative Marketing
Federation of India Limited (NAFED) was
established on October 2, 1958 to organise, promote
and develop marketing, processing and storage of
agricultural and horticultural produce, and to facilitate
import and export and wholesale or retail trade. It also
facilitates, coordinates and promotes the marketing
and trading activities of cooperative institutions.
2. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD) was established on July
12, 1982 to promote sustainable and equitable
agriculture and rural development through financial
and non-financial interventions, innovations
technologies and institutional development.
3. Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA) was established
under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products
Export Development Authority Act in December
1985. The Act came into effect from February 13,
1986. The main work of APEDA is to fix standards
and specification for the scheduled product for
export import.
Demand and Supply of Vegetables
In economics, demand and supply helps to determine
the price of goods sold in the market. To a large extent,
it relies on the competition among buyers as well as
sellers. If there are more buyers they bid against each
other and raise the price because the demand of goods
is more and supply is less, On the other hand, if there
are more sellers or more supply then the sellers bid
against each other and lower the price. The equilibrium
is when all the bidding has been done and nobody has
an incentive to offer higher prices or accept lower prices.
The concept of demand
The quantity demanded of a good or vegetable in a given
time is the total amount of goods or vegetables that
the buyers would choose to purchase under the given
conditions. The conditions are:
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Notes ¢ Price of the vegetable
¢ Price of complement
¢ Income and wealth
¢ Preferences
¢ Quantity
¢ Expectations of future prices
The law of demand: when the price of a good rises, and
everything else remains the same, the quantity of the
good demanded will fall.
The concept of supply
The quantity supplied is the total amount of goods or
vegetables that sellers would choose to produce and sell
under the given conditions at a given time. The given
conditions include:
¢ Price of the vegetable
¢ Price of factors of production (labour, capital)
e Price of alternative products the farm could produce
¢ Technology
¢ Productivity
¢ Expectations of future prices
The law of supply: when the price of a particular good
rises, then the quantity of that good supplied will also
rise subject to all other things remaining the same.
Price fluctuation
The normal supply of vegetables is directly related to
people’s livelihood and social stability. Smooth price
of vegetables is important for social development. The
management strategies to control fluctuations in the
price of vegetables are as follows:
¢ Establishing and improving the channels of
information transmission.
e Making production and marketing
information symmetrical.
¢ Balancing supply and demand.
¢ Actively promoting the industry standardisation
of vegetables.
¢ Reducing the intermediate links.
¢ Curtailing the circulation cost of vegetables.
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¢ Regulating the ‘green channel’ of vegetables. Notes
e Preventing uptick in the prices of vegetables in
the ‘last mile’.
¢ Cracking down on the vegetable speculation
behaviour to ensure healthy development of the
vegetable market.
¢ Actively giving play to the role of the government.
¢ Building vegetable protection system.
The quality and quantity may be affected by climatic
factors, such as drought, frost, rain, heat, etc., at
the production levels, which, in turn, influence the
availability. Other than this, insect pest and diseases
also affect the production. The price of fresh produce is
also influenced by the time of the purchase, as products
outside or at the beginning or end of the season might
be more expensive than in the middle of it.
Interdependencies among _ product’ categories
influence the final price. Factors, such as variety,
size, packaging, maturity of the product, organoleptic
quality, promotional activities, the demand for specific
growing practices, such as organic production, etc.,
also influence the price of fresh vegetables at the
demand level. All these elements influence the price.
Furthermore, logistical constraints or the place of
purchase (supermarket, hard-discount and grocery
store) also influence the final price. Finally, one should
consider the overall economic situation and purchasing
power, the demand for competing products, changes in
consumer demands and so on.
Marketing System of Vegetable Crops
Marketing of vegetables comes with a lot of constraints
due to their high perishable nature, seasonal market
arrivals and bulky nature. Assembling and subsequent
marketing of the produce is still a struggle due to lack
of proper storage facilities and quick transport systems.
Very often, producers are forced to dispose of their
produce at a nominal price when there are seasonal
gluts due to these bottlenecks. Another major defect
in vegetable marketing is the involvement of several
intermediaries, who dominate the trade and reap a
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NoTES huge profit. Consequently, the producer’s margin in the
consumer’s price becomes low. In vegetable marketing,
the following four channels are predominant.
1. Producer— Commission agent— Wholesale trader—
Retailer Consumer
2. Producer — Wholesale trader — Retailer—>Consumer
3. Producer — Commission agent — Wholesaler —
Consumer
4. Producer — Retailer — Consumer
5. Producer — Consumer
A majority of the produce is marketed through
channel 1 and 2. Channel 4 operates only when the
producing area is situated near big markets or haats or
cities. Vegetables are generally marketed in big hotels
or other establishments through Channel 3.
Marketing through cooperatives is inadequate in
our country. It is urgently felt that more horticultural
producers’ cooperative marketing societies should be
established at the village and district levels to control
the activity of the intermediaries and to regulate
vegetable marketing. At present, NAFED, several state
tribal cooperative corporations headed by TRIFED and
primary cooperative marketing societies have taken
up procurement and marketing of potato, onion and
ginger. Besides NAFED, about 12 states and central
level societies and more than 275 primary marketing
societies are directly engaged in the marketing of
vegetables. Horticultural Producers Marketing and
Processing Society (HOPCOMS), Bangalore, Nilgiris
Cooperative Marketing Society, Udhagamandalam,
Nilgiris Vegetable Growers Cooperative Marketing
Society, Udhagamandalam, Nasik District Potato and
Onion Growers Cooperative Association are some of the
other cooperative agencies rendering their services in
the marketing of vegetables. The National Horticulture
Board has started providing information regarding the
prevailing prices of vegetables at various wholesale
markets on a daily basis.
The existing systems need to be streamlined and
monitored. The facility of the cooperative societies should
be extended to the grass root level. Moreover, closer
coordination among the Agriculture Marketing Board,
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National Horticulture Board and State Department of
Agriculture or Horticulture should formulate an action
plan for marketing of vegetables.
Defects in the vegetable marketing system
Poor transport facilities and almost complete lack of
refrigerated transport network makes it difficult to
send perishable products like vegetables to distant
markets in a good condition. It is found that most of
the post-harvest losses in the produce occur during
transportation and distribution.
Lack of storage facilities often results in surfeit. In
this situation, the growers are forced to sell their
produce even at throw away prices.
Preponderance of intermediaries in the marketing
channel lowers the producer’s profit.
There is no provision to fix floor prices, even for some
important vegetables, therefore, producers are often
cheated by the clever middlemen.
Lack of grading and quality control system.
Concept of consumer packaging is _ practically
unknown in the domestic markets.
Absolute lack of coordination between production
targets of the state agriculture department and
action plan of the marketing directorate.
Primitive methods of selling, like secret sale, private
negotiation, under cover, etc., are very much in
vogue.
Government and other cooperative marketing
agencies’ participation in vegetable marketing.
Lack of pre-cooling, refrigerated transportation, chill
cold storage and frozen cold storage.
Transportation in Marketing
It has been estimated that one-third of the vegetables
get spoilt between the farm and the transit and another
one-third before it reaches the consumer. In our country,
transportation network for perishable commodities like
vegetables is very weakly developed. The concept of
refrigerated transport for vegetables is yet to be developed.
Basic FarM MANAGEMENT
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NorTeEs
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Nores This spoilage happens in transit due to inadequate as
well as loose packaging. In this situation, an efficient
and a cost-effective transit network should be provided
in the potential vegetable growing areas. Rail transport
is 8-10 times more efficient than road transport with
respect to the use of energy for the movement of the
same tonnage. Unfortunately, long distance transport of
vegetables is mostly done by road because rail transport
has not yet proved to be dependable for vegetables in
our country. Therefore, it becomes necessary to modify
the long distance transport carriages by introducing
refrigeration, more ventilation and by improving quick
loading and unloading systems.
Fresh vegetables are normally exported by air
from Mumbai. Onion, potato, garlic, sweet potato
and elephant foot yam are exported by ship. Some
onions are also exported from Porbandar in Gujarat,
Chennai and Nagapattinam ports in Tamil Nadu by
ship. Thiruvananthapuram and Delhi are the other
airports from where vegetables are exported. Kuwait
Airways, Saudi Air Lines and Air India are the major
airlines, which transport vegetables. Fresh vegetable
exports other than onions are allowed freely under
the ‘Open General License’ (OGL). Onion is exported
through NAFED. Private traders can also export onion
by becoming associates of NAFED.
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Marketing system of vegetable crops
Material required
Writing material, practical notebook
Procedure
1. Visit a nearby vegetable market or mandi.
2. Note down the various types of vegetables available in
the market.
3. Observe the functions of different marketing channels.
a
Note down the various activities of marketing channels.
5. Note down the price variation between the producer,
wholesale trader, retailer and consumer.
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Calculate the difference in cost of vegetables between the NoTEs
different channels.
Observe difficulties, ifany, faced by the producer and discuss
the marketing information acquired by the producer.
Check Your Progress
A. Fill in the blanks
I
A majority of the produce is marketed through Channel
and
A model that determines the price and quantity of any
product is called model.
APEDA stands for
Marketing information system is also known as
NAFED was established on
B. Multiple choice questions
1.
How many channels are predominant in
vegetable marketing?
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
APEDA was established in
(a) 1986
(b) 1996
(c) 2002
(d) 2005
The collection source of marketing information
(a) newspaper
(b) magazines
(c) government agencies or experts
(d) All of the above
Bulb and tuber crops are generally transported
(a) by air
(b) by ship
(c) by rail
(d) None of the above
C. Subjective questions
1.
2
So:
4
What is the marketing system of vegetable crops?
is
What are the reasons for price fluctuation in the market?
Define demand with a suitable example.
Define supply with a suitable example.
Basic FarM MANAGEMENT
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NoTES D. Match the columns
A B
1. Source of market (a) Market information
information
2. Marketing Federation of (b) APEDA
India
3. Product Development (c) NAFED
Export Authority
4. Agriculture and Rural (d) Directorate of Economics
Development Bank and Marketing
5. Price determination (e) NABARD
© SOLANACEOUS Crop CULTIVATOR — CLass X
° ©
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ANSWER KEy
Unit 1: Irrigation Management in Vegetable Crops
Session 1: Irrigation and Water Quality
A. Fillin the blanks
1. element
2. frequent, more water
3. poor
4. 6.5-8.5
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a)
D. Match the columns
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (b)
Session 2: Water Requirement and Irrigation Methods
A. Fillin the blanks
irrigation scheduling
critical stage
border irrigation
overhead irrigation
bulb formation stage
emitters or drippers
drip irrigation
NoaukRwnhr
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)
D. Match the columns
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (e) 5. (b)
Unit 2: Weed Management in Vegetable Crops
Session 1: Weeds in Vegetable Crops
A. Fillin the blanks
1. weeds
2. two seed leaves
3. annual
4. Perennial
5. grassy
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b)
D. Match the columns
1. (c) 2. (e) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d)
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Notes Session 2: Weed Management
A. Fill in the blanks
intercropping
44-50
crop rotation
hand weeding
post-emergence
Sop |S ee
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a)
D. Match the column
1. (e) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (ce)
Unit 3: Integrated Pest and Disease Management in
Vegetable Crops
Session 1: Major Insect-pests of Solanaceous Crops
A. Fill in the blanks
1. African marigold
2. tomato aphids
3. leaf miner
4. curl upwards
5. mites
6. shoot and fruit borer
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d)
D. Match the columns
1. (e) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d)
Session 2: Major Diseases of Solanaceous Crops
A. Fill in the blanks
1. Damping off
2. Little leaf of brinjal
3. die-back
4. nematodes
5. virus
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b)
D. Match the columns
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (b)
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Session 3: Integrated Pest and Disease Management of
Solanaceous Crops
A. Fill in the blanks
1. diamond black moth
2. brinjal
3. trap crop
4. nitrogen
5. male
6. fruit flies
7. predator
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a)
D. Match the columns
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (e)
NorTeEs
4. (a) 5. (a)
4. (b) 5. (a)
Unit 4: Harvest and Post-harvest Management
Session 1: Maturity Standards and Harvest of Solanaceous Crops
A. Fill in the blanks
physiological maturity
tomato and muskmelon
non-climacteric
4. morning, evening
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a)
D. Match the columns
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d)
4. (b) 5. (a)
4. (e) 5. (a)
Session 2: Post-harvest Handling of Solanaceous Vegetable Crops
A. Fill in the blanks
1. pre-cooling
2. 100-150
3. cold chain
4. packaging
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c)
D. Match the columns
1. (e) 2. (d) 3. (c)
ANSWER KEy
Glossary and Answer Key.indd 117
4. (c) 5. (d)
4. (b) 5. (a)
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Notes Unit 5: Basic Farm Management
Session 1: Farm Management and Selection Criteria of Vegetable
Crops
A. Fill in the blanks
fixed costs and variable costs
single entry system
double entry system
processing unit
storage
oP ie
B. Multiple choice questions
as ONS
LBs
D. Match the columns
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (e) 4. (b) 5. (a)
Session 2: Basic Market Information
A. Fill in the blanks
Le aby 2
2. demand and supply
3. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority
4. market intelligence system
5. October 2, 1958
B. Multiple choice questions
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b)
D. Match the columns
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (e) 5. (a)
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GLOSSARY
Admixture: mixing an ingredient with something else.
Adulteration: addition of a substance, which may result in the loss
of actual quality.
Alternate host: an organism that serves as a temporary host in the
absence of host.
Barrier crop: a tall growing crop that inhibits insects from
flying over.
Biochemical: a chemical process, that occurs in living organisms.
Bioherbicide: an organism that is toxic to unwanted vegetation
and is used to destroy weeds.
Bulbs: a round underground storage organ. It is present in some
plants. It consists of a short stem surrounded by fleshy scale leaves
or leaf bases.
Buldgy: a protruding part with an outward curve or swelling.
Cochineal insects: a scarlet dye used for colouring food, made
from the crushed dried bodies of a female scale insect.
Coir: fibre from the outer husk of a coconut.
Concentric rings: rings with a common centre.
Conservation: preservation, prevention.
Corms: it is the same thing as a bulb.
Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha): the expenditure incurred from field
preparation to harvest is calculated at rupees per hectare.
Depletion: exhaustion
Determinate type: plants, such as tomato, that terminate in flower
buds, self topping type.
Diffusion: the movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
Disperse: spreading something over a large area.
Disseminate: spread, circulate, distribute.
Dormant: resting period. Not active.
Dumping: deposit or dispose of waste carelessly.
Entomopathogenic: pathogenic to insects.
Eradicate: destroy completely, put an end to, eliminate.
Evapo-transpiration: the process by which water is transferred to
the atmosphere. It could be by evaporation from the soil and other
surfaces and by transpiration from plants.
Fertigation: it is the process of direct application of water soluble
solid fertilisers or liquid fertilisers with irrigation water.
Fungicides: itis a substance or chemical used to kill or control fungi.
Gross returns (Rs/ha): the yield is computed per hectare and
the total income worked out at rupees per tonne according to the
prevailing market price.
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Notes Heavy metal: a metal of relatively high density or high relative
atomic weight.
Herbaceous: tender, grassy.
Homogenous: denoting a process involving substances in the
same phase.
Indeterminate type: tall (vine like) growing varieties.
Infestation: an unusually large number of insects present in a
particular place or host.
Insect: a small animal of the insect class with three pairs of legs,
two pair of wings, and body divided into three segments head,
thorax and abdomen.
Insecticides: a substance or chemical used to kill or control insects.
Insulate: protect from heat, cold or noise.
Irrigation interval: a break in the number of days between two
consecutive irrigations during the critical period of consumptive use
of the crop. The interval depends on the crop, soil and climate.
Irrigation scheduling: is the frequency of water application in
which water is to be applied based on the needs of the crop and
nature of the soil.
Maturity indices: measurement that can be used to determine
whether a particular commodity is mature.
Mulching: applying coarse plant residue or chips, or other suitable
material, to cover the soil surface. It reduces evaporation from soil
surface and weed growth.
Myco-herbicide: fungus or fungi used to destroy weeds.
Nematicides: chemicals that control nematodes.
Net returns (Rs/ha): obtained by subtracting the cost of cultivation
from gross returns for each treatment and expressed as rupees per
hectare.
Osmosis: a fluid, usually water, passing through a semi-permeable
membrane into a solution where the solvent concentration is higher.
Parasite: an organism which lives in or on another living organism
(its host) and benefits by drawing nutrients at the other’s expense.
Parasitoid: an insect whose larva lives as a parasite and eventually
kills the host.
Pathogens: any organism that causes disease in another organism.
Permeable: a material or membrane that allow liquid or gas to pass
through it.
Pest: a destructive being that attacks crop, livestock, food, etc.
Pesticide: a substance used to control pests.
Pheromone trap: a trap that uses pheromones to lure insects.
Pheromone: a chemical that is secreted or excreted to trigger a
social response in members of the same species.
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Photosynthesis: a process in which green plants convert solar Notes
energy into chemical energy and later release it as fuel.
Physiology: a branch of biology that deals with the functions and
activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical
and chemical processes.
Phytotoxic: lethal to plants
Porous: material having minute interstices (spaces) through which
liquid or air can pass.
Predator: an organism that preys on other organisms.
Residue: something that remains after use; remainder.
Respiration: inhalation and exhalation of air by a living organism.
Rhizomes: a continuously growing horizontal underground stem,
which puts out lateral shoots and adventitious roots at intervals.
Scars: marks of injuries.
Shelf life: the length of time for which an item remains usable or fit
for consumption.
Sodium Absorbance Ratio (SAR): it is an irrigation water quality
parameter to determine the concentration of ions of sodium and
calcium plus magnesium content in the water.
Soil borne: inhabitant of soil; lives and grows in soil.
Solarisation: using solar power for controlling pests.
Succulent: a plant having thick fleshy leaves or stems adapted to
storing water; juicy.
Sunken spot: a spot that is deeper in the centre and shallow on the
outer sides.
Systemic insecticides: insecticides translocated to various parts
of the plant irrespective of the part applied to.
Thuricide (Bacillus thuringiensis): a liquid formulation of
bacteria that controls caterpillars, loopers, etc.
Trap crop: acrop that you add to your garden to attract pests away
from the main crop.
Trimming: to put into a neat or orderly condition by clipping.
Tubers: a much thickened underground part of a stem.
Vacuum: a region with gaseous pressure much less than the
atmospheric pressure.
Vectors: carrier of pathogens.
Viable: able to germinate or grow.
GLOSSARY @
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List OF CREDITS
Unit1: Irrigation Management in Vegetable Crops
Fig. 1.1 : Sources of irrigation water
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.1.2 : pH colour strip scale
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.1.3 : Digital pH meter
Courtesy: Prof. R K Pathak, DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.1.4 : Digital Electrical Conductivity (EC) meter
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2WLpwdG
Fig.1.5 : Irrigation systems and methods
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.1.6 : Flood irrigation method
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.1.7: Border irrigation method
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.1.8 : Line diagram of check basin irrigation method
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig. 1.9 : Line diagram of ring and basin irrigation methods
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig. 1.10 : Furrow irrigation method
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2E90kKV
Fig.1.1la: View of sprinkler or overhead irrigation system
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2pcDdEj
Fig.1.11b: View of sprinkler or overhead irrigation system
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2D3GqQi
Fig.1.11c: View of sprinkler or overhead irrigation system
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2NibMHn
Fig.1.11d: View of sprinkler or overhead irrigation system
Courtesy : https://pxhere.com/en/photo/765816
Fig.1.12 : Components of drip irrigation system
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig. 1.13 : Component and layout of drip irrigation system
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2MPyenZ
Unit 2: Weed Management in Vegetable Crops
Fig. 2.1 : Broadleaf weeds, Camphor grass (Chromolaena odorata)
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2NioiH2
Fig. 2.2 : Grassy weeds Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)
Courtesy: https://bit.ly/2Nlj0dO
Fig.2.3. : Amaranth (Amaranthus viridus)
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2pfFGOG
Fig. 2.4 : Common Crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis)
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2xqfJPI
Glossary and Answer Key.indd 122 01-Jun-21 12:57:28 PM
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Fig.2.5
Courtesy :
Fig.2.6
Courtesy :
Fig.2.7
Courtesy :
Fig.2.8
Courtesy :
Fig.2.9
Courtesy :
Fig.2.10
Courtesy :
Fig.2.11
Courtesy :
Fig.2.12
Courtesy :
Fig. 2.13
Courtesy :
Fig. 2.14:
Courtesy :
Fig. 2.15:
Courtesy :
Fig. 2.16:
Courtesy :
: Bathua or Pigweed (Chenopodium album)
https://bit.ly/2NkcGml
: Field bindweed or Hirankhuri (Convolvulus arvensis)
https://bit.ly/2pcW55Z
: Amaranth (Amaranthus viridus)
https://bit.ly/2D5Pkwz
: Satyanashi or Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana)
Asthma Plant (Euphorbia hirta)
https://bit.ly/2xjavG7
: Bathua or Pigweed (Chenopodium album)
https: / /bit.ly/2QCnURS
: Creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense)
https://bit.ly/2Nk4hA2
: Doob grass or Bermuda (Cynodon dactylon)
https://bit.ly/2QzAPnn
: Purple nut sedge or Motha (Cyperus rotundus)
https://bit.ly/2MEg9aQ
: Bishkhapra (Boerhavia difusa)
DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Methods of weed control
DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Types of Herbicides
DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Knapsack sprayer
https://bit.ly/2E9p2YB
Unit 3: Integrated Pest and Disease Management in
Vegetable Crops
Fig 3.1
Courtesy :
Fig 3.2
Courtesy :
Fig 3.3
Courtesy :
Fig 3.4
Courtesy :
Fig.3.5
Courtesy :
Fig.3.6
Courtesy :
Fig.3.7
Courtesy :
Fig.3.8
Courtesy :
Fig.3.9
: Whiteflies in tomato
https://bit.ly/2WOMYap
: Aphids in tomato
https://bit.ly/2ZmHC7v
: Leaf hopper in brinjal
https://bit.ly/2MKKWIc
: Aphids in brinjal
https://bit.ly/2Q 1rlfq
: Early blight of tomato
https://bit.ly/2MFLXfk
: Late blight of tomato
https://bit.ly/2PZVkKf
: Leaf curl in tomato
https://bit.ly/2Nm7i2R
: Root knot in tomato
https://bit.ly/2MHFUqR
: Phomopsis blight in brinjal
List OF CREDITS
Glossary and Answer Key.indd 123
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NorTes Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2NgLbul
Fig.3.10 : Little leaf in brinjal
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2NjbxvR
Fig.3.11 : Cercospora leaf spot in Brinjal
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2NRKkzK
Fig.3.12 : Fusarium wilt in tomato
Courtesy : https:/ /bit.ly/20uSqvv
Fig.3.13 : Integrated pest management (IPM)
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.3.14 : Biological pest control
Two spotted lady beetle (Adalia bipunctata) feeding amongst
aphid colony
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2VIHZg9
Fig.3.15 : Biological pest control (The parasitoid wasp Adalia
bipunctata laying eggs on a caterpillar)
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2xkikLG
Unit 4: Harvest and Post-harvest Management
Fig. 4.1 : Maturity indices of solanaceous vegetable crops
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig. 4.2 : A view of maturity stages in tomato
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig. 4.3 : Maturity stages of tomato
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.4.4 : Harvesting container (Plastic crates)
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig. 4.5 : Methods of pre-cooling
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.4.6 : Packing in the field and transport to packing house
Courtesy : DAAH, PSSCIVE, Bhopal
Fig.4.7 : Corrugated cardboard boxes
Courtesy : https://bit.ly/2XHSYvs
&) () SOLANACEOUS Crop CULTIVATOR — CLass X
@
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FURTHER READING
Chadha, K.L. 2010. Handbook of Horticulture. ICAR, New Delhi.
pp. 1069.
Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, Ramesh. 2001. Integrated Pest
Management. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. pp. 427.
Majumdar, D.K. 2014. Irrigation Water Management: Principles and
Practice. Prentice Hall India Learning Private Limited.
Michael, A.M. 2004. Irrigation Theory and Practice. Vikas Publishing
House; second edition, New Delhi.
Naidu, V.S.G.R. 2012. Handbook of Weed Identification. Directorate
of Weed Research, Jabalpur.
Reddy S.S. 2005. Agricultural Economics. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
Reddy, S.R. 1999. Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana, p. 306.
Johl, $.S. and Kapur, T.R. 1989. Fundamentals of Farm Business
Management. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Singh, A., Sadhu, A.N. and Singh, J. 2015. Fundamentals of
Agricultural Economics. Himalaya Publication House, New Delhi.
Acharya, S.S. and Agrawal, N.L. 1987. Agriculture Marketing in
India. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
Swarup, V. 2014. Vegetable Science and Technology. Kalyani
Publishers, Ludhiana, p. 138.
Thamburaj and Singh, N. 2015. Textbook of Vegetables, Tuber
Crops and Spices. ICAR Publication, New Delhi.
Glossary and Answer Key.indd 125 01-Jun-21 12:57:28 PM
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