Assam Board Class 11 Logic and Philosophy

Unit 7: Theory of Knowledge & Pramanas (Marks: 10)

Chapter 1: Theories of the Origin of Knowledge

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. _______ is knowledge of classification, principles, models or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area.

(i) Procedural knowledge
(ii) Metacognitive knowledge
(iii) Conceptual knowledge
(iv) Factual knowledge

Ans: (iii) Conceptual knowledge.

2. According to _______, the father of modern philosophy, reason is the source of true knowledge. His aim was to find clear and certain knowledge.

(i) Socrates
(ii) Adventitious
(iii) Descartes
(iv) Innate

Ans: (iii) Descartes.

3. Descartes divided into _______ categories:

(i) 2
(ii) 4
(iii) 3
(iv) 5

Ans: (iii) 3

4. Who criticised the doctrine of innate ideas and argued that knowledge comes only from sense experience?

(i) Descartes
(ii) Leibniz
(iii) Locke
(iv) Spinoza

Ans: (iii) Locke.

5. According to empiricism, knowledge is:

(i) A priori
(ii) A posteriori
(iii) Universal
(iv) Inherited

Ans: (ii) A posteriori.

6. According to rationalists, the source of knowledge is:

(i) Sense experience
(ii) Reason
(iii) Reflection
(iv) Imagination

Ans: (ii) Reason.

7. _______ followed the footsteps of Descartes and held that all knowledge originates in reason.

(i) Experience
(ii) Spinoza
(iii) Reflection
(iv) Substance

Ans: (ii) Spinoza.

8. What is the concept of the mind at birth, according to Locke?

(i) A blank slate
(ii) Pre-existing knowledge
(iii) A divine creation
(iv) All of the above

Ans: (i) A blank slate.

9. _______ holds that soul which is a monad or a spiritual substance evolves all knowledge from within itself.

(i) Spinoza
(ii) Leibnitz
(iii) Adventitious
(iv) Experience

Ans: (ii) Leibnitz.

10. What is the theory that states “There is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the sense”?

(i) Rationalism
(ii) Empiricism
(iii) Scepticism
(iv) Idealism

Ans: (ii) Empiricism.

11. The ideas which are imprinted on the mind by God at the time of birth are called _______.

(i) Rationalism
(ii) Leibnitz
(iii) Innate ideas
(iv) Descartes

Ans: (iii) Innate ideas.

12. According to Hume, knowledge is composed of:

(i) Impressions and ideas
(ii) Reason and logic
(iii) Sense experience and reflection
(iv) Universal truths

Ans: (i) Impressions and ideas.

13. According to _______ all our knowledge is derived from sense experience?

(i) Rationalism
(ii) Association
(iii) Empiricism
(iv) Spinoza

Ans: (iii) Empiricism.

14. What criticism is levelled against empiricism regarding its reliance on:

(i) Reason alone
(ii) Sensory experience
(iii) Abstract concepts
(iv) Metaphysical speculation

Ans: (ii) Sensory experience.

15. According to _______ mind is passive in receiving sensations.

(i) Metaphysical speculation
(ii) Empiricism
(iii) Locke
(iv) None of the above

Ans: (iii) Locke.

Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)

Q: Which of the following groups of philosophers is a group of rationalists? (2017, 2018)

(a) Descartes, Hume, Spinoza |

(b) Plato, Spinoza, Leibnitz |

(d) Descartes, Spinoza, Locke

Ans: (b) Plato, Spinoza, Leibnitz

Q: Which of the following philosophers is an empiricist? (2017)

Descartes,

Leibnitz,

Spinoza,

Hume

Ans: Hume

Q: Who regarded the mind as a 'clean slate'? (2017)

Ans: Locke

Q: Who refuted the theory of innate ideas? (2017)

Ans: Locke

Q: Who held the mind or the soul as 'Monad'? (2015)

Ans: Leibnitz

Q: Name the theory of the origin of knowledge with which the statement 'Esse est percipi' is connected. (2016)

Ans: Subjective Idealism

Q: Which of the following groups of philosophers is a group of empiricists? (2015)

(a) Descartes, Spinoza, Locke |

(b) Locke, Leibnitz, Hume |

(d) Locke, Hume, Berkeley

Ans: (d) Locke, Hume, Berkeley

Q: According to which theory is intellect or reason the only source of knowledge?

Ans: Rationalism

Q: Is Descartes a rationalist?

Ans: Yes, he is.

Q: 'There is nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the sense' - With which theory is this statement related?

Ans: Empiricism

Q: Who is the philosopher related to the statement 'There is nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the sense'?

Ans: John Locke

Q: According to rationalism, 'Human knowledge is not a priori but a posteriori' - Is it true?

Ans: No, false.

Q: At the time of birth, our mind is like a 'tabula rasa' or a clean slate. Which theory holds this view?

Ans: Empiricism

Q: Who made the statement 'At the time of birth our mind is like a tabula rasa'?

Ans: John Locke

Q: Name three rationalist philosophers.

Ans: Descartes, Leibnitz, Spinoza

Q: Are innate ideas achieved through experience?

Ans: No

Q: Which philosopher introduced the concept of 'windowless monads' in rationalism?

Ans: Leibnitz

Q: Which philosopher is associated with the statement 'Esse est percipi'?

Ans: Berkeley

Q: Write the name of a rationalist philosopher.

Ans: Descartes

Q: What type of idealism did Hegel support?

Ans: Objective Idealism

Q: Is Berkeley's idealism subjective or objective?

Ans: Subjective

Q: Which philosopher distinguished between primary and secondary qualities?

Ans: John Locke

Q: Who is the propounder of Subjective Idealism?

Ans: George Berkeley

Q: Who is the main exponent of empiricism?

Ans: John Locke

Short Answer Questions (2 Marks)

Q: What do you mean by adventitious ideas? Give an example. (2015)

Ans: Those ideas which enter the mind from the experience of external objects are called adventitious ideas. Example: Ideas of trees, flowers, etc.

Q: Define Rationalism.

Ans: The epistemological theory according to which reason is the main source of knowledge is called rationalism.

Q: Define Empiricism.

Ans: According to empiricism, all our knowledge is derived from sense experience.

Q: What do you mean by innate ideas?

Ans: The ideas which are imprinted on the mind by God at the time of birth are called innate ideas.

Q: Define a posteriori knowledge.

Ans: The knowledge which is achieved through sense experience is called a posteriori knowledge.

Q: Define a priori knowledge.

Ans: The knowledge which is achieved by the mind before any experience is called a priori knowledge.

Q: What is a Monad?

Ans: According to Leibnitz, the substances which are independent, conscious, self-existent, and windowless are called monads.

Q: What do you mean by factitious ideas?

Ans: The ideas created by the mind through imagination by the conjunction of ideas are called factitious (or fictitious) ideas.

Q: 'Mind is a tabula rasa' – Who said this? With which theory is this statement related?

Ans: Locke said this. This statement is related to empiricism.

Q: Name two modern rationalist thinkers.

Ans: Leibnitz and Descartes.

Q: Give two examples of innate ideas.

Ans: God and Soul.

Q: Name the philosopher who said substance is Monad. With which theory is the concept of Monad related?

Ans: Leibnitz said this. The concept of Monad is related to rationalism.

Q: Name two Greek rationalist thinkers.

Ans: Plato and Socrates.

Q: Mention two empiricist philosophers.

Ans: Hume and Locke.

Q: State two theories of the origin of knowledge.

Ans: Empiricism and Rationalism.

Q: Name the philosopher who introduced the concept of innate ideas. With which theory are innate ideas related?

Ans: Descartes introduced this concept. It is associated with rationalism.

Q: Mention one argument put forward by Locke to refute innate ideas.

Ans: If there were innate ideas in the mind, they would be the same in all minds. But the so-called innate ideas are different in different people at different stages.

Expanded Answers (4 Marks)

1. State four characteristics of empiricism. (2016, 2017)

Ans: Empiricism is the epistemological theory that asserts that all knowledge is derived from sense experience. The key characteristics are:

Experience as the Source of Knowledge: Empiricists believe that perception or experience is the only way to attain knowledge. There are no innate ideas; all ideas come from sensory experiences.
Inductive Method: Empiricism primarily uses the inductive method, drawing general conclusions from specific observations (contrasting with the rationalist deductive method).
Novelty in Knowledge: Since knowledge comes from experience, there is always scope for new learning. As experiences change, knowledge evolves.
A Posteriori Nature of Knowledge: Empiricism holds that knowledge is not a priori (independent of experience) but a posteriori (gained through experience).

2. State four characteristics of Rationalism. (2016)

Ans: Rationalism is the philosophical theory that reason is the fundamental source of all knowledge. The main characteristics are:

Reason as the Source of Knowledge: Reason, rather than experience, is the primary source of knowledge. Truths can be discovered through logical deduction.
Use of Mathematics in Knowledge: Rationalists rely on mathematical principles, seeing them as clear, certain, and absolute models for rational thought.
Innate Ideas: Some ideas are inherent in the human mind at birth (e.g., God, causality, infinity) and do not come from experience.
Mind as Naturally Rational: Reason is a natural characteristic of the human mind, allowing individuals to grasp fundamental truths without sensory input.

3. Briefly explain how Locke refuted Descartes' innate ideas. (2017)

Ans: John Locke argued that all knowledge comes from experience. His key arguments against innate ideas are:

Lack of Universality: If innate ideas existed, they would be present in all minds universally. Since they are not, ideas are acquired.
Variations in Thought: Different people and cultures have different beliefs, suggesting knowledge is learned, not inborn.
No Proof of Innateness: There is no clear evidence to support pre-existing ideas in the mind.
Experience as the True Source: All ideas come from experience—either sensation (external) or reflection (internal).

4. Define Adventitious and Fictitious ideas with examples.

Ans:

Adventitious Ideas: Ideas that enter the mind through direct experience with external objects. They are not created by the mind but arise from sensory perception. (Example: The idea of trees, flowers, or mountains).
Fictitious Ideas: Ideas created by the imagination, where the mind combines different ideas to form something that does not exist in reality. (Example: A golden hill or a flying horse).

5. How many kinds of ideas are there according to Descartes? What are they?

Ans: According to Descartes, there are three kinds of ideas:

Innate Ideas: Present in the mind from birth (e.g., God, infinity, substance).
Adventitious Ideas: Coming from external experiences (e.g., a tree or a book).
Fictitious Ideas: Created by the imagination (e.g., a unicorn).

6. What are the different theories of the origin of knowledge? What is empiricism? Who introduced this theory in philosophy?

Ans: The two major theories are:

Empiricism: All knowledge comes from sense experience. It rejects innate knowledge and emphasizes observation. Introduced by John Locke.
Rationalism: Reason is the main source of knowledge, and some ideas exist independently of experience.

7. What is Rationalism? Who introduced this theory in philosophy?

Ans: Rationalism is the theory that reason alone is the primary source of true knowledge. Rationalists believe in innate ideas and emphasize logical reasoning. It was introduced by René Descartes, who is considered the father of modern rationalism.

8. Define Descartes' theory of innate ideas with examples.

Ans: Innate ideas are present in the human mind from birth and do not come from experience. Descartes argued these are implanted by God and are part of human nature.

Idea of God: The concept of a perfect and infinite being.
Idea of Causality: The belief that everything has a cause.
Idea of Infinity: The understanding of something beyond limits.

9. Why is Descartes called the Father of Modern Western Philosophy?

Ans: * Reason as the Basis of Knowledge: He argued that true knowledge is discovered through reason rather than sensory experience.

Clear and Certain Knowledge: His method of systematic doubt ensured knowledge was built on firm foundations.
Mathematical Method: He applied mathematical precision to philosophy for clear logical reasoning.
Development of Rationalism: His theories laid the foundation for modern Western philosophy.

10. What are the branches of philosophy? State the different theories of the origin of knowledge.

Ans: * Branches: Epistemology (knowledge), Metaphysics (existence/reality), Axiology (values, ethics, aesthetics).

Theories of Origin of Knowledge: Rationalism (reason), Empiricism (experience), Criticism (combination of both).

Long Answers (6 Marks)

1. What is Empiricism? Briefly express four points of criticism against empiricism. (2015)

Ans: Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge originates from sense experience. It denies innate ideas and emphasizes that human understanding is formed through observation. Major proponents include John Locke, David Hume, and George Berkeley. Criticism against Empiricism:

One-Sided and Dogmatic: It considers only sense experience as the source of knowledge, completely ignoring the vital role of reason.
Narrow Definition of Experience: Empiricists define experience only as sense perception, ignoring intuition, memory, and emotions.
Fails to Explain Self-Knowledge: It struggles to explain self-awareness and introspection, as the "self" is not observed through the senses.
Lacks Universal Truths: Mathematical truths (like $2 + 2 = 4$ ) are learned through reasoning, not sensory experience, proving knowledge isn't always based on perception.

2. What is Rationalism? Briefly express four points of criticism against rationalism. (2015, 2018)

Ans: Rationalism states that reason is the only source of true knowledge. It argues that some knowledge is innate and does not come from experience. Proponents include Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz. Criticism against Rationalism:

One-Sided and Dogmatic: It focuses only on reason and ignores sense experience. In reality, we gain knowledge through both.
Problem with Innate Ideas: Locke refuted this by arguing that if ideas were innate, everyone (including children) should have them from birth, which isn't true.
Fails to Explain New Knowledge: If knowledge is solely based on reason, new scientific discoveries wouldn't require observation.
Innate Ideas are Based on Experience: Concepts like causality or time are actually derived from observing events in nature, not from an inborn idea.

3. What is Empiricism? Mention four features or characteristics of empiricism. (2018)

Ans: Empiricism is the theory that states all knowledge comes from sensory experience, claiming the mind is a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth. Features/Characteristics:

Knowledge is Gained Through Experience: Perception is the sole source of knowledge; nothing is inborn.
Use of the Inductive Method: Forming general conclusions from specific observations (e.g., seeing many white swans and concluding all swans are white).
Knowledge is Dynamic and Evolving: Because experience changes, knowledge expands and modifies over time.
A Posteriori Knowledge: Knowledge depends entirely on empirical evidence.

4. What is Rationalism? Mention four features of rationalism.

Ans: Rationalism is the theory that reason is the fundamental source of knowledge, believing that certain truths are innate. Features/Characteristics:

Reason as the Source: True knowledge comes from reason and logic, not experience.
Mathematical and Logical Certainty: Mathematical reasoning provides clear, universal, and absolute truths (e.g., $2 + 2 = 4$ ).
Innate Ideas: The mind is born with some inherent knowledge (God, infinity, morality).
A Priori Knowledge: Some knowledge exists independent of experience (e.g., understanding a perfect circle without ever seeing one).

Chapter 2: Pramāṇa – Pratyakṣa and Anumāna

Short Answer Questions (1 & 2 Marks)

Q: Which of the following statements is NOT correct? (2018)

(i) Knowledge by internal perception is immediate knowledge.

(ii) Knowledge by testimony is mediate knowledge.

(iii) Knowledge by inference is not mediate knowledge.

(iv) Knowledge by external perception is not mediate knowledge.

Ans: (iii) Knowledge by inference is not mediate knowledge.

Q: How many pramāṇas are accepted in the Nyāya system? (2017)

Ans: Four (4).

Q: How many pramāṇas are accepted in Indian philosophy? (2016)

Ans: Six (6).

Q: What is called valid knowledge in Indian philosophy?

Ans: Pramā.

Q: What is called the source of valid knowledge in Indian philosophy?

Ans: Pramāṇa.

Q: What is the valid source of knowledge according to Cārvāka philosophy?

Ans: Perception (Pratyakṣa).

Q: What is the logical ground of inference according to Nyāya?

Ans: Vyāpti.

Q: How many kinds of ordinary perception (Laukika Pratyakṣa) and extraordinary perception (Alaukika Pratyakṣa) are there in Nyāya philosophy?

Ans: Three of each.

Q: How many kinds of judgment are there in Svārthānumāna and Parārthānumāna?

Ans: Svārthānumāna has three; Parārthānumāna has five.

Q: Does Cārvāka accept inference as a valid source of knowledge?

Ans: No.

Q: Define Laukika Pratyakṣa (Ordinary Perception).

Ans: When the sense organs come into contact with an object in a normal or direct way.

Q: Define Alaukika Pratyakṣa (Extraordinary Perception).

Ans: When no ordinary relation is possible between the sense organ and the object, yet perception occurs.

Q: What is Anumāna (Inference)?

Ans: Knowledge derived on the basis of perception. It is a mediate knowledge that presupposes another piece of knowledge.

Q: Define Savikalpa Pratyakṣa.

Ans: A kind of perception in which the object is perceived with its qualities and relations (determinate perception).

Q: What do you mean by Vyāpti?

Ans: The invariable and universal relation between the middle term (Hetu) and the major term (Sādhya).

Examples of Key Concepts (3 Marks)

Q: Give an example of Parārthānumāna.

Ans:

The hill has fire (Pratijñā).
Because it has smoke (Hetu).
Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (Udāharaṇa).
This hill has smoke (Upanaya).
Therefore, the hill has fire (Nigamana).

Q: Give an example of Kevalānvayi Anumāna. Ans:

All knowable objects are nameable.
The table is a knowable object.
Therefore, the table is a nameable object.

Q: Define Anvayi Vyatireki Anumāna with an example.

Ans: An inference in which the Hetu is related to the Sādhya both positively and negatively. Example: (Positive): All things that have smoke have fire. The hill has smoke. Therefore, the hill has fire. (Negative): No thing that has no fire has smoke. The hill has smoke. Therefore, the hill has fire.

Long Answers & Tables (6 Marks)

1. State the difference between ordinary (Laukika) and extraordinary (Alaukika) perception.

Feature	Ordinary Perception (Laukika Pratyakṣa)	Extraordinary Perception (Alaukika Pratyakṣa)
Contact	Occurs through the normal physical contact of the sense organs with an object.	Occurs when the sense organ does not have direct physical contact with the object.
Organs Used	Takes place through external sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.) and internal (mind).	Based on an extraordinary connection (e.g., divine or intuitive knowledge).
Scope	Gives knowledge of the object that is directly in front of the perceiver.	Allows knowledge of an object not directly perceived (inferred through an unusual process).
Example	Seeing a tree in front of you with your eyes.	A yogi perceiving ultimate reality through deep meditation (Yogaja Pratyakṣa).

2. State the difference between Svārthānumāna and Parārthānumāna.

Feature	Svārthānumāna	Parārthānumāna
Purpose	Inference made for one's own knowledge.	Inference made to convince or prove something to others.
Nature	It is a mental process, not expressed in a formal argument.	It is expressed formally with logical steps.
Structure	Consists of three steps: Vyāpti, Pratijñā, Nigamana.	Consists of five steps: Pratijñā, Hetu, Udāharaṇa, Upanaya, Nigamana.
Example	Mentally concluding: "This hill has fire because it has smoke."	Stating publicly the 5-step logical syllogism of fire and smoke on the hill.

3. State differences between Nirvikalpa and Savikalpa Pratyakṣa.

Feature	Nirvikalpa Pratyakṣa (Indeterminate)	Savikalpa Pratyakṣa (Determinate)
Awareness	Perception of an object without assigning any name or quality.	Perception of an object along with its name and characteristics.
Relationship	Free from subject-predicate relationship.	Involves subject-predicate relation (judgment is formed).
Processing	No analysis or synthesis of the perceived object.	The object is analyzed, synthesized, and categorized.
Example	Seeing an unknown object and just registering its presence.	Seeing an animal and recognizing it as a "cow" with horns.

4. Define Kevalānvayi and Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna with suitable examples.

Ans: * Kevalānvayi Anumāna (Positive Inference): The middle term (Hetu) is always positively related to the major term (Sādhya). There is no negative instance. * Example: All knowable objects are nameable. The table is a knowable object. Therefore, the table is a nameable object.

Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna (Negative Inference): The Hetu is always negatively related to the Sādhya. Wherever the Hetu is absent, the Sādhya is also absent.
- Example: Whatever is not different from the other elements has no smell. The earth has smell. Therefore, the earth is different from other elements.

5. Define Pūrvavat and Śeṣavat Anumāna with suitable examples.

Ans: * Pūrvavat Anumāna (Cause to Effect): Inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause, based on past experience. * Example: There are dark clouds in the sky. Dark clouds always result in rain. Therefore, it will rain soon.

Śeṣavat Anumāna (Effect to Cause): Inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect.
- Example: The river water is muddy and flowing rapidly. This happens when there has been rainfall. Therefore, it has rained previously.

6. Classifications of Anumāna in Nyāya.

Classification Basis	Types
Based on Purpose	1. Svārthānumāna (for self-knowledge) 2. Parārthānumāna (for proving to others)
Based on Relation Between Cause and Effect	1. Pūrvavat Anumāna (cause to effect) 2. Śeṣavat Anumāna (effect to cause) 3. Sāmānyatodṛṣṭa Anumāna (based on uniformity of co-existence)
Based on Logical Structure	1. Kevalānvayi Anumāna (positive inference) 2. Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna (negative inference) 3. Anvaya Vyatireki Anumāna (both positive and negative inference)

Classification Basis

Types

Based on Purpose

1. Svārthānumāna (for self-knowledge)

2. Parārthānumāna (for proving to others)

Based on Relation Between Cause and Effect

1. Pūrvavat Anumāna (cause to effect)

2. Śeṣavat Anumāna (effect to cause)

3. Sāmānyatodṛṣṭa Anumāna (based on uniformity of co-existence)

Based on Logical Structure

1. Kevalānvayi Anumāna (positive inference)

2. Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna (negative inference)

3. Anvaya Vyatireki Anumāna (both positive and negative inference)

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